HUANG, Gui, History Dept., Xiamen University 361005, Xiamen, Fujian Province, PR CHINA

(Agricultural Archaeology 1999:46-51.Transl./interpret./ed. by Drs. W. Tsao, 8/25/03; Jiwu Wang & B. Gordon)

        Li Yenzhong's belief that Jincheng is a placename is preferred. For an imported crop, Chinese folk custom suggests naming it after its growing place rather than its origin⁽⁵⁾. Further, its alias rather than placename is often in documents; e.g.s, Changshu in Baoyou Qinchuan Topography for Qinchuan City; Kunshan in Chunyou Yufeng Topography for Yufeng City; Fuzhou in Chunxi Sanshan Topography for Sanshan City, etc. Cha Wangcun's New Jiucheng Topography says Jincheng Mountain is in Chaozhou⁽⁶⁾, but Wang Xiangshi's Famous Landmarks says Jincheng is synonymous with Chaozhou, "the name Jincheng for its old Jin family landlord; the name Fengshui for the stream (shui) beside Fenghuang Mountain; the name exi (e = crocodile; xi = stream) for the famous Han Gong who ousted a crocodile from this place; the name Jieyang for its ancient name; the name Chaoyang for the name of the current prefecture"⁽⁷⁾. But Zhu Mu's Records of Famous Landmarks uses these aliases differently: "Chaoyang, Guying, Fengcheng (famed for fenghuang or phoenix), Jincheng (for old Jin family landlord), edu (crocodile)"⁽⁸⁾. In any case, Jincheng doubtless is synonymous with Chaozhou, but no record exists when this place belonged to the Jin family. Jincheng Mountain became famous when N Song Dynasty Chaozhou governor Wang Han opened it, not for its famous scenery but to avoid "possible attack by bandits hidden in a nearby granary". Even after opening, he said "Jincheng Mountain has the most wonderful scenery in the territory"⁽⁹⁾, writing a poem praising its beauty: "Through thousands of years, creation of nowhere to be found the wonders. Upon us the forms of beauty in natural creation, fame extended by my deliberation..."⁽¹⁰⁾. Succeeding governors developed Jincheng Mountain: "Changhou Yi arriving at the turn of Chunxi (1174) to explore, discover and redesign the whole area... all existing pavilions and structures repainted and repaired for long term enjoyment"⁽¹¹⁾. "As Ye Guan, Jing Dingshi, You Yisu, etc., also built pavilions in the Duanping years (S Song Dynasty 1234-1237)"⁽¹²⁾, Zheng Hou said: "Jinshan is a Chaozhou treasure. To have it in the prefecture is like a human possessing man's constitution"⁽¹³⁾.

        As Jincheng and Chaozhou became synonymous, exported Chaozhou rice automatically became Jincheng. Sanyang Topography says: "(Chaozhou) under warm SE temperature allows two annual rice harvests: Xia Zhi (ca. June 21) for zao he (early rice) and 10^th lunar winter month for red coarse rice or wan he (late rice) or wen he (secure rice). When sold to other prefectures, it became Jincheng rice"⁽¹⁴⁾.

        Chaozhou's earliest dike was likely built in mid-to-late Tang Dynasty. As the Lian Plain already had dikes, the Chaoyang County office was moved to Xinxing village in Zhenyuan 9^th year (793)⁽¹⁶⁾. As Governor Zhou Mingbian reconstructed and repaired Han River dikes as early as Song Dynasty Xingguo 8^th year (983)⁽¹⁷⁾, they predate it, with Ming Dynasty court officer Yang Dian saying construction began in Tang Dynasty⁽¹⁸⁾, with Qing Dynasty Chen Jue identifying Han Yu (768-824) as builder⁽¹⁹⁾. Chaozhou people recall him with respect, tracing everything of Tang Dynasty to him, but Chaozhou's school and tiled house rooves predate him⁽²⁰⁾. Whether Han Yu was Chaozhou's first dike builder is discussed elsewhere.

        Song Dynasty dikes Beimen, Nanmen, Jiangdong, Dongxian and upper, middle, lower & outer Pu allowed regional growth (Table 1). Due to lack of N Song Dynasty data, information is mainly S Song. As a Saoxi Xinhai year (1190) record says Haiyang County "farmed here for several centuries"⁽²¹⁾, Han dike construction was already perfected in mid-Song Dynasty and locals could say "we lived along rivers and sea because the dike was as strong as the Great Wall"⁽²²⁾, providing a glimpse of Han Basin growth.

*Yongle Canon 5345, Chaozhou people bid farewell to Governor Bi Chaofeng: building 80 miles of dike for Chaozhou people".

        Other regional hydraulic engineering includes Wang Di's Sanli Stream irrigation in Yuanyou 5^th year (1090) to irrigate Hai, Jie and Chao County paddies⁽²³⁾, Lin Biao and Lin Guangshi's Xihu Lake drainage in Qingyuan and Kaiqing periods⁽²⁴⁾; Peng Yannian's construction of 36 wells in Huangyou period⁽²⁵⁾, Zheng Huai's 24 wells in early S Song period⁽²⁶⁾; Wang Di's construction of Qincaigou Lock in Yuanyou 5^th year⁽²⁷⁾; etc.

        When discussing growth of rice culture, Taiping Huanyu (Peaceful World) says "Chaozhou rice ripens twice annually"⁽²⁸⁾, without specifying zai sheng dao (regenerated) or shuang ji dao (dual-season) rice. S Song Dynasty's Sanyang Topography says "(Chaozhou) rice in the warm SE ripening in 5^th-6^th summer lunar months is early rice and 10^th winter month is late or safe rice"⁽²⁹⁾, distinct from regenerated rice or zai liao dao which "ripens early in fall". Still popular for Chaozhou farmers⁽³⁰⁾, "safe rice" implies more safeguards than early rice and differs from Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Quanzhou regenerated rice. "The Jiangtang Wu River Pavilion poem says buffalo once grazed on green grass, which ripens after autumn and regrows after harvest from lingering roots (Wu Prefecture Topography). Seedlings growing fast and ripening quickly are called zai sheng dao, likely identical to earlier zai shu dao (re-ripening rice)"⁽³¹⁾. The latter in Quanzhou is also "harvested in spring and summer, seedlings re-growing from roots in early autumn"⁽³²⁾. Fuzhou regenerated rice (zai you qiu reharvested in autumn) is low yield and should be harvested only once"⁽³³⁾. Dual-season rice assumes Jincheng rice export and that grown elsewhere as aforestated and obviously not real dual-season rice.

        Little data prevent delineating Tang and N Song Dynasty agricultural production in Chaozhou, but N Song Dynasty's Narration of major Kaiyuan Temple reconstruction in Chaozhou by Yu Jing said it was "a rich Lingnan prefecture"⁽³⁴⁾, "richness" meaning intense agricultural production and ample public food and clothing. Chaozhou population in Song Dynasty rose troublefree and steadily⁽³⁵⁾ under "spacious land and sparse population, extra land benefits"⁽³⁶⁾. This is unlike Jiangnan, where population/land lost balance, especially in S Song period.

        3) Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Fujian often relied on Guangdong rice supply. The earliest Jincheng rice export was recorded in Jianyan 4^th year (1126): "Officer Weng Li and others were appointed in the 10^th month of Jianyan 4^th year to go to Chaozhou and bring 3 gang by sea (1 gang = 10000 dan or 1000000 catties), arriving Fuzhou the 1^st month of this year. Later, officer Pan He also came to Chaozhou to take rice to Wenzhou"⁽³⁷⁾. Much Jincheng rice exported from Chaozhou was recorded in early S Song period, agreeing closely with its unique social background. After the "Jingkang disaster"^*, many people moved S, concentrating in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Sichuan and Hunan. Mo Meng says: "People from all over the place gathered in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, up to hundred times the norm"⁽³⁸⁾. Zheng Ku says: "Pingjiang, Chang, Run, Hu, Hang and Yue Prefectures are destined to be an asylum for the gentry, the most superior and virtuous gathering there"⁽³⁹⁾. The direct upshot of southward movement was little and costly food, esp. in Jiang and Zhe; e.g.s, Pingjiang, Zhejiang Province rice "cost 500 qian (coin)/dou (peck)"⁽⁴⁰⁾, sweet rice at 800 qian/dou in Yuezhou and E Zhejiang and "Hangzhou rice at 400 qian"⁽⁴¹⁾. Later, it rose in Zhejiang to 12000 wen/dou, falling to 600 wen in Shaoxing 1^st year (1131). This pleased the Gaozong emperor very much because "it provided army rations and averted public famine"⁽⁴²⁾. Price fluctuated from 700 wen in Shaoxing 5^th year (1135) to >1000 wen in the catastrophe⁽⁴³⁾, the situation in Zhejiang and elsewhere⁽⁴⁴⁾. Exporting Chaozhou and other rice to save Jiangsu and Zhejiang was socially important at that time.

        This was the special situation under peculiar early Song Dynasty conditions, but Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Fujian depended on imports, including Chaozhou rice, over the whole S Song Dynasty (1127-1278), especially during drought and flood.

        The so-called "Jiangnan route" refers mainly to E Jiangnan (rice transport). "During catastrophe, many boats come from Guangdong, Guangxi and W Zhejiang to purchase rice. This year, (the situation intensifies) to severe Guangdong and Guangxi drought (and) drastic W Zhejiang price rise"⁽⁴⁵⁾. "The emperor orders Guangxi and Guangdong to open two yi cang (food banks) and transport rice to Yongjia via sea, a popular earlier practice"⁽⁴⁶⁾.

        As Siming and Changgao in Zhejiang are mountainous and the coast has many salterns, "their public depends on W Zhejiang rice and worries if it has a bad year...., with Prefecture and county officials buying Guangdong rice for relief"⁽⁴⁷⁾. "As dry Changgao mountain fields and sea salterns are unsuited to grow japonica or sticky rice, rice output lasts locals for a few days, with dependance on W Zhejiang rice"⁽⁴⁸⁾. E Zhejiang also depends on Guangdong. Zhu Xi detailed the situation to the emperor: "as investigation shows 6 counties under my jurisdiction have drought damage from inadequate rain and I worry their people need food, this officer reported to the Court on 7^th month 18^th day, asking for a relief fund of 1000 guan (1 guan = 1000 coins), so we can send a boat to buy Chaozhou rice"⁽⁴⁹⁾. Taizhou Jinshi Document said: "At famine onset, someone in this Prefecture went to Fujian and Guangdong, telling merchants 'My name is Zhao from a wealthy family in Taizhou, where rice price is inflated, but if you send rice, you can store it in my house'. In less than a month, many boats came"⁽⁵⁰⁾. As Chaozhou is near Taizhou, boats came in a few days, with Jincheng rice most of the trade. As Fujian also has insufficient supply from limited farmland and dense population, it depended on Guangdong rice, sending little min relief rice.

        A maxim says Fujian has 8 mountains, 1 river, 1 fen (1/10 mu or acre) farmland and high population, a Song History saying: "It has little farmland but must support a rising population, so farmland will soon be scarce, esp. rich soil, with land prices soaring and many lawsuits"⁽⁵¹⁾. Fang Shao also says: "Fujian land is not only limited but poor quality, and the water source shallow and far away. People in Fujian work very diligently, but there are fewer rich ones than other provinces"⁽⁵²⁾. "N-S trade was needed because Fu, Xing and Quian harvests are low and, even in a good year, only sufficient for six months"⁽⁵³⁾. If trade was interrupted, the Fujianese had famine. "The Fu, Quian and Xing Prefecture armies and public depend totally on Guangdong rice. When pirates are active and intercept rice boats on the sea, the Fujianese have famine and rice prices rise, a constant worry by officials and private citizens" ⁽⁵⁴⁾. While uncited in the above, Chaozhou rice was involved as part of Guangdong rice, in Fujian relief needs. The following is related: "S Guangdong with high rice production attracts many merchants annually, the trade always at sea. This year I plan to invite merchants with...>100000 hu (each hu can contain 10 pecks rice) from Guangdong. To carry this out, related offices should gather enough funds and select reliable officials or local people to deliver the money to merchants before winter so rice can be purchased on time (because Chaozhou and Huizhou are near the route to this province - original note)"⁽⁵⁵⁾. Putian also experienced severe drought in Longxing (1163-1165) and Qiandao (1165-1174) years of S Song Dynasty, Liu Feng and Liu Shuo "inviting Chaozhou and Huizhou merchants to import as much as rice as possible so people can escape famine"⁽⁵⁶⁾. Chaozhou is a close neighbor to W and S Fujian, and the dependence of Fujian on Guangdong rice, including Chaozhou rice, is undeniable.

        4) Jincheng rice and Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Fujian. Sanyang Topography says Jincheng rice taken to Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Fujian is late red coarse rice or chi chao mi, its non-selectivity demanding its import as seed⁽⁵⁷⁾: "Late or safe rice harvested in 10^th winter month resembles chi chao mi, elsewhere called Jincheng rice. Other single harvest japonica and shu (sticky) rice only grows in rich soil, but chi chao mi does not have this limitation"⁽⁵⁸⁾. S Song Dynasty Jincheng rice grew in Qinchuan (now Changshu), Siming (Ningbo), Wuxing (Huzhou), Kuaiji (Shaoxing), Ganshui (Haiyen), Yufeng (Kunshan), Xianxi (Xianyou), etc. Wuxing Topography says Jincheng rice was lower quality, "needing dikes to construct its paddies because Wuxing hilly fields dry easily. Its long slender seed and drought resistance makes it (locally jian zi or slender seed) an ideal cultivar"⁽⁵⁹⁾. Qinchuan Topography says Jincheng rice is both red or white and early or late harvest, "its red grain cooked by steaming"⁽⁶⁰⁾. Topographies say early Jincheng cultivar grew in Kunshan, Changsu, Haiyen, etc. Xianxi Topography, like Wuxing Topography, says it is indica (sativa), different from keng (japonica) or shu (sticky or sweet rice)⁽⁶¹⁾.

        As Jincheng rice origin is unknown, its main trait being non-selective growing conditions, it is almost certainly chi chao mi, as found in Qing Dynasty's Chaozhou Topography: "Six late cultivars include: bai mang (long white awn like barley and red grain in low fields and salty water, broadcast ca. July 23, transplanted ca. August 23 and harvested ca. Nov. 22); chai tou zhong (firewood head with longest spikes, red grain, high yield and growing season like bai mang....Kuai zhong gu (fast planting rice) with red grain growing in low fields and salty water, and growing season also like bai mang"⁽⁶²⁾. As no trace of early Jincheng rice exists, it may be new under different conditions, or white Jincheng rice in historic documents.

        While the first Jincheng rice export is also unknown, its S Song Dynasty expansion resembles Zhancheng rice. Zhancheng grain is small, non-selective⁽⁶³⁾, poor quality and, when cooked, "hardens"⁽⁶⁴⁾ like Jincheng rice. As both have many common indica traits, people easily confuse their names. Zhancheng rice expanded in N Song Dynasty under Zhenzhong Emperor, while no-name "Jincheng" was almost unknown. Zhancheng records also confuse⁽⁶⁵⁾, people believing it as Jincheng mispronunciation. The more important factor is Chaozhou's economic status was not strong enough not to be easily neglected. But things may become famous due to their birthplace and people may become eminent due to the high spirit of the hometown.

        The following table is the growing situation of Jincheng and Zhancheng rice in Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Fujian in Song and Yuan Dynasties:

 

1. Jiatai (1201-1205) Kuaiji Topography, Vol. 17 (Section grass): Zhancheng rice is called Jincheng rice by Zhancheng aborigines (many Zhancheng cultivars are also mentioned in this volume).

 

2. Jiading(1208-1225) Chicheng Topography, Vol. 36 (Local products and grains): Zhancheng rice.

 

3. Xianchun (1265-1275) Linan Topography, Vol. 58 (Produces): Early Zhancheng rice.

 

4. Jiatai Wuxing Topography, Vol. 20 (Plants): Jincheng rice.

 

5. Baoqing (1225-1228) Siming Topography, Vol. 4 (Description of products): Zhancheng, Jincheng rice.

 

6. Shaoding (1228-1234) Ganshui Topography, Vol. 1 (Section products): Early Jincheng rice.

 

7. Baoyou (1253-1259) Qinchuan Topography, Vol. 9 (Description of produces and grains): Early and late Jincheng rice in red an white.

 

8. Chunyou (1241-1253) Yugeng Topography, Vol. 2 (Local products): Early Jincheng rice.

 

9. Baoyou Xianxi Topography, Vol. 1 (Products):There are 3 kinds of rice, keng (japonica), nuo (sticky) and Jincheng. Vol. 1 (Trading material): There are many kinds of Zhancheng rice, hard to record every one of them.

 

10. Zhishun (1330-1333) Zhenjiang Topography, Vol. 4. (Local products): 100 day Zhancheng rice.

 

11. Chunxi (1174-1190) Xingan Topography, Vol. 2. (Local products): zhan he.

 

12. Chunxi Sanshan Topography, Vol. 41. (Local customs and procuts): Early Zhancheng, late Zhancheng.

Above topographies are in the Song Yuan Topographic Collections published by China Publishing House 1990.

 

1. Jaitai Kuaiji Topography, Vol. 17 (Section grass), China Pub. House, 1990.

 

2. Li Yanzhang: Extension work on rice growing in Jiangnan - cultivars of early provincial rice, 1895.

 

3. He Bingdi: Early ripening rice in Chinese history, Agricultural Archaeology, 1990 (1).

 

4. You Xiuling: Questions in Zhancheng rice, Agricultural Archaeology, 1983 (1).

 

5. You Xiuling: Historical verification of Chinese rice cultivar resources, Agricultural Archaeology 1981(2).

 

6. Wang Cun: Yuanfeng Jiucheng Topography, addendum Vol. 9, Chinese Pub. House 1984.

 

7. Wang Xiangzhi: Famous land marks, Vol. 100, Chinese Pub. House 1992.

 

8. Famous Landscapes by Fand Xing, Song Ed. Vol. 36. Shanghai Ancient Books Pub., 1991.

 

9. Yongle Canon, Vol. 5345, Wang Han (Jin Shan Story), Chinese Pub. House, 1990.

 

10. ibid

 

11. Yongle Canon, Vol. 5343, (Government offices) from Sanyang Topography of S. Song Dynasty.

 

12. ibid.

 

13. See (9).

 

14. Yongle Canon, Vol. 5343 (Local products) from Sanyang Topography of S Song Dynasty.

 

15. Guangdong geography, p. 304-6, Guangdong People's Pub. 1988

 

16. County map of Yuanhe County, Vol. 34, Chinese Pub. House 1983

 

17. Jiajin Chaozhou Prefecture Topography, Vol. 1

 

18. Qianlong Chaozhou Prefecture Topography, Vol. 40

 

19. Guangxu Haiyang County Topography, Vol. 21

 

20. Guo Fei: Records of Guangdong, Vol. 11

 

21. Yongle Canon, Vol. 5345 (Dike construction in Haiyang)

 

22. ibid

 

23. Guangxu Haiyang County Topography, Vol. 21

 

24. ibid

 

25. Guangxu Jieyang County Topography, Vol. 1

 

26. Qianlong Chaozhou Prefecture Topography, Vol. 33

 

27. Yongle Canon, Vol. 5345, (Construction of Zhu Pavilion)

 

28. Taiping Huanyu, Vol. 34 (Chaozhou, local products)

 

29. Yongle Canon, Vol. 5343 (Local products - Sanyang Topography)

 

30. Research of Chaozhou, Vol. 6, p. 265, Shantou University Pub. 1997.

 

31. Fan Chengda (Shaoding): Wu Prefecture Topography, Vol. 29 (Local porducts).

 

32. Taiping Huanyu, Vol. 102, (Quianzhou - local products).

 

33. Liu Hui: Works of agricultural villages, Vol. 7 (Promoting agriculture in Fuzhou).

 

34. Yu Jing: Wuxi stories, Vol. 8 (Narration of major reconstruction of Kaiyuan Temple in Chaozhou).

 

35. Yongle Canon, Vol. 5343, (Sanyang County Census).

 

36. Xu Yinglong: Dongjian Collection, Vol. 13 (Promoting agriculture in Chaozhou at arrival).

 

37. Song record collection, Vol. 47 (Trading merchandise).

 

38. Important records after Jianyen (1127), Vol. 158.

 

39. Ibid, Vol. 20.

 

40. Wang Miongqing: After dusting, Vol. 10.

 

41. See (37).

 

42. See (37).

 

43. The Song History, Vol. 67 (On working jobs).

 

44. See (37).

 

45. See (37).

 

46. Collective literature of Chu Xi, Vol. 93 (An epitaph of transportation officer Huang You), etc..

 

47. Baoqing Siming Topography, Vol. 4 (Description of products), Chinese Pub. House 1990.

 

48. Dade Prefecture Map of Changguo Prefecture, Vol. 4 (Description of products and grain crops).

 

49. See (46).

 

50. Huang Rui (Qing Dynasty): Taizhou Jinshi Document, Vol. 5.

 

51. Song History, Vol. 89 (Geographic maps).

 

52. Fang Shao: Section House, Middle Vol., Chinese Pub. House, 1983.

 

53. Collective literatures of Zhewenzhonggong, Vol. 15 (Official document to the emperor's court to ask for rice to relieve famine in Fujian).

 

54. ibid.

 

55. Collective literatures of Chuwengong, Vol. 25, (Discussing the article on famine relief).

 

56. Ye Shi: Collective literatures, Vol. 16 (An epitaph for Liu).

 

57. See notes in table at the end of text.

 

58. See (35).

 

59. Jiatai Wuxing Topography, Vol. 20 (Productions), Chinese Pub. House 1990.

 

60. Baoyou Qinchuan Topography, Vol. 9 (Description of products and grain crops).

 

61. Chunyou Yufeng Topography, Vol. 2 (Local products, rice).

 

62. Baoyou Xianxi Topography, Vol. 1 (Products).

 

63. Qianlong Chaozhou Prefecture Topography, Vol. 39 (Products).

 

64. The Song History, Vol. 173.

 

65. Luo Yuan: Eryayi, Vol. 1, from Research on Chinese Social Economic History, No. 4, 1998.