(Agricultural Archaeology 2000(1):129-141. Transl. by Dr. W. Tsao, ed. by B. Gordon)
The great historian Sima Qiana said: "Alas, I have no knowledge on anything before Shennong (Shi Ji. Introduction to Tai Shi Gong)". After saying this as a serious historian, he repeated Shennongshi (Chidi, Yandi, ca. 2737-2697 BC)b in his Shi Ji, explaining his belief that Yandi Shennongshi was a real person (or tribe).
Abstract: While there are different views of the Yandi Shennongshi legendary entity in ancient books and literature, we may still be able to systematically verify and discuss ties between his agricultural policy and Hunan ancient rice culture, based on extant archaeological data.
Keywords: Yandi Shennongshi, myth, legend, Hunan, rice culture, origin
(1) Views on two birthplaces
Although anecdotes and historic records show Yandi Shennongshi was born either in Shaanxi's Jiang River or in Hubei's Sui County Lieshan, existing historic data may verify his real birthplace.
1. Anecdote on Shaanxi's Jiang River birthplace
Huangfu Mi of Jin Dynasty (265-419) said in his (Di Wang Shi Ji or History of Emperors and Kings) "Yandi Shennongshi used Jiang as his surname. His mother's maiden name was Rengshi Nudeng, a daughter of Youjiaoshi, and was chosen as the superior lady-in-waiting to a Shaodian official. While traveling on the S side of Hua Mountain, she attracted a divine dragon and later gave birth to Yandi. Legend says Yandi with human body and cow head matured near Jiang River, adopting it as surname." Hua Mountain is in Shaanxi's Shang County near Jiang River. Zhang Shu of Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) says in his Family Names chapter in Family Origins: "Yandi grew up in Jiang River, adopting it as his surname. Jiang is also on the S side of Fufeng", an ancient county now Shaanxi's Fengyang and Fufeng Counties in Jiang Basin. It was ancient territory of the Jiang, a later Zhou tribe. Shui Jing Zhu (Classic of river systems) says "Jiang River flows E from Qi Mountain and S of Jiangshi City." A river originating on Yaozhou's SW side (now Gansu's SW Lingtan County), combined with Sichuan's Min, Bailong, and Baishui Rivers has the ancient name Jiang. As it belonged to the ancient Jiang, a W China tribe traceable to the earliest records, some suggest Shennongshi was a subtribe1. Shuo Wen, a famous dictionary compiled ca. AD 100, says "Shennong lived near Jiang River and used it as surname. The character jiang is the radical yang (goat) atop and nu (female or girl) below", the original implication being a girl milking a goat while kneeling on one foot. It implies animals were domesticated before agriculture, female family members managing both daily household tasks and raising goats, and representing Neolithic early matriarchal society. Regarding the latter, famous Taoist philosopher Zhuang Zi says in Dao Zi (Story of Bandit Zi): "Shennong period people live in proper houses, behave properly, know only their mothers, but not their fathers." On Shennong being a Qiang subtribe, Shuo Wen says the "Qiang shaped the W frontier tribes (Tibetans). The character qiang has the radical yang (goat) atop and ren (people) below," also depicting a person milking a goat while kneeling on one foot; i.e., qiang and jiang closely resemble each other in shape and pronunciation and are interchangeable in ancient books. The Qiang subtribe in what is now Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai and Sichuan overlap the Shennongshi clan. Primitive Yandi Shennongshi agriculturists united and progressed considerably after separating from their Qiang nomadic ancestors. Later, the Shennongshi amalgamated with the Huangdi Xuanyuanshi to form the so-called Huaxia and the proud Chinese people.
2. Anecdote on Hubei Sui County birthplace
Another birthplace is in Di Wang Shi Ji: "Shennong tribe was originally called Lieshan (lie=burning, shan=mountain) or Lieshanshi." Lieshan or Lishan, Lianshan or Tongshan, is in Hubei's Sui County. This view was first expressed in the Book of Rites - Law of sacrifice and National Languages - Lu language: "...Lishanshi thus rules the state and his son Nong (agriculture) knows how to propagate hundreds of kinds of grain crops." Zheng Xuan adds: "As Lishanshi is Yandi, originally Lishan, it may be known as Lishanshi." National Languages says: "Lishanshi was the past state ruler and his son Zhu was able to plant hundreds of types of grain and vegetable crops." Song Dynasty's Luo Mi says in Lu Shi (Road History): "his mother Andeng attracted a divine being, later bearing Shennong in a Lishan cave, when water appeared in nine wells." Tang Dynasty's Xiao Deyan wrote in Gua Di Zhi (Guadi Topography): "Lishan is ca.100 miles N of Sui County, a cave on the E side of the mountain. Legend says Shennong known as Lishanshi was born in Li Village, a place occupied by Li State, according to the Spring and Autumn Annals (722-484 BC)." It is known as Shennong cave, measuring 300 ft high and 2000 ft long. Shui Jing Zhu says "Liaoshui runs W across S Li County and Tongshan, while Lieshan is further S. As a cave at the mountain base is the legendary birthplace of Shennong, the latter is also known as Lieshanshi. After Shennong's birth, water gushed out of nine wells N of the river (Liaoshui)."
3. Analysis of both birthplace views
Where was Shennong born, Jiang River or Lieshan? Advocating Sui County's Shennong cave and nine wells (Shennong community) supports Lieshan or Lishan, but his mother, Youqiaoshi, may have lived in Jiangcheng fort on Qingjiang River in Jiang Basin 7 miles S of Baojie City, a Shennong temple built by villagers 1 mile S commemorating his birth. The Jiusheng spring opposite may be where he had his first bath three days after birth. All support Jiang River as his real birthplace. As the Qiang was the Shennongshi mother tribe and an original race, an agricultural growth view shows Shennongshi engaged in transforming animal husbandry to agriculture. While Jiang River as true birthplace is historically sound, names traceable to Yandi Shennongshi favor Sui County's Lieshan. Despite no records, out-migrants remembered ancestral titles to define themselves, the reason why Yandi Shennongshi descendants were called Yandi or Shennongshi. But titles restrict descendants' birthplace and activity to ancestors or even mistakenly via names like Shennongshi, with descendant's title of Lishanshi (Lieshanshi) a mistake caused by title inheritance or out-migration which still remains; e.g., Hunan's Miao call themselves "Meng Chiyou", where "Meng" is the usual name Miao people call themselves and "Chiyou" is the legendary rebel conquered by Huangdi. This point will help solve doubts on Yandi Shennongshi's unclear records.
(2) Yandi and Shennong - One Person or Two
Yandi and Shennongshi are often treated as one person or two in history and needs clarification.
1. Views on Yandi and Shennong as one person
Di Wang Shi Ji says "Shennongshi, Wuhuaihoushi's descendant, was very kind and the first to use fire. He was named Yandi because he lived in the south in summer, with Cheng the capital city of his state. He invented the five-string musical instrument and taught his people to plant grain, receiving the name Shennongshi." It thus treats Yandi and Shennongshi as the same person. "Yandi used the character Yan for a surname for his ability to sustain wood fire." (Zuo Zhuan - Zhaogong 17th year). Dushi records "Yandi Shennongshi is the Jiang family ancestor", while Kong's notes in Zhengy say "Both Emperor Genealogy and State Fundamentals suggest Yandi and Shennongshi are the same, with Yandi the title and Shennongshi an appellation." Gao Xiu wrote in Huai Nan Zi: "Chidi, Yandi, son of Saodian, is also called Shennong and Huode (huo=fire, de=virtue) or South Emperor." The Ancient People List in Hansu or Book of Han people says "Yandi is Shennongshi." Zhang Yan explained "Shennong became ruler because of his virtue as bright as fire (denoting Yandi), with his farming knowledge earning the appellation Shennong." Tang Dynasty's Sima Zhen discusses Yandi Shennongshi origin in his Addendum to Shi Ji: "His virtue with fire earned the title Yandi; skill in shaping wood into si (hoe blade) and lei (handle) taught people to use farm tools, earning the name Shennongshi." Qing Dynasty Wang Mo's State Fundamentals says "Yandi is Shennongshi. Song Dynasty's Zhongzi said Yandi is his title and Shennong his appellation." All records suggest Yandi and Shennongshi are the same, the "title" and "appellation", names of honor given by later people. Chinese History of Ancient Philosophy reiterates Yandi and Shennongshi being the same, suggesting "Yandi is a Miao subtribal chief who invented agriculture and lived in Shenzhou (China), acquiring the name Shennongshi, with Yandi, Shennong and Chiyou the same." Chiyou inclusion in this list must be inherited from ancestors.
2. Views on Yandi and Shennong as one person or two
Li Ji says "the emperor is Yandi, the deity is Zhurong." Yandi is no longer Shennongshi in Zheng Xuan's note Yandi or Datingshi". Du Shi interprets a passage in Zuo Zhuan - Zhaogong 17th year as "After examining ancient history, Qiao Zhou believes Yandi and Shennong are two people." Cui Su's Addendum to Verification of Ancient Events says "Shennong, not Yandi", based on the legendary battle between Yandi and Huangdi where "there is no reason brothers fight in battlefields", so Yandi and Shennong differ. Han Su (Field worship) says "Shennongshi and Yandi received separate honorable titles in Taishan prayer ceremonies. Li Qi adds "Yandi descends from Shennong" so they are separate, but this is really a follow-up of Guan Zi: "All receive honorable titles and then bestowed with duties (in prayer ceremony.)" Guan Zi is the first to announce the dual view by saying Shennong and Yandi underwent separate sacrifice ceremonies in Liangfushan (Taishan village). But the one-person view in Yuan Ke's Dictionary of Myths and Legends for Yandi quotes Zhong Zi's comments: "Yandi is Shennong, Yandi a self-title and Shennong an appellation", suggesting they differed before blending. Tu Wuzhou states a dual view in Tangling Status of Shennong, Yandi and Huangdi: "both born from the mother of she (snake) family and father of niu (cattle) family."2 The strongest dual view is in Xu Xusan's Legendary Period in China Ancient History: Lushi Chunqiu says Shennongshi was the only divine agricultural official in the five legendary or historic positions in the period Zhuang Tuo Pien, the tribe Zhan Guo Ce and person Zhuang Zi. Xu adds "the Three Kingdom's Qiao Zhou believed Yandi and Shennong differ, with Qiao Zhou a meticulous research on the matter." In criticizing a person adopting a unified view, he says "everything is totally influenced by the idea of unification, believing if people act similarly (in records), it could be one person. Yandi and Shennong clearly differ."
3. Evidence indicatesYandi and Shennongshi are one person
Historic data and folklore suggest Yandi and Shennongshi are the same; e.g., "honoring Yandi as Shennong" in Shaanxi, Hebei, Henan, Hubei and Hunan. For two-person view believers using the legendary Yandi-Huangdi battle, National Languages - Jin Language explains: "Huangdi rules Jishui under the surname Ji; Yandi on Jiang River has the surname Jiang. Their way of ruling differed in surname, way of ruling and kind of rulers." Our famous phrase "calamity often occurred from inside" came from many brothers warring in our history. Cui Su's historic verification was diligent, but his conclusion Yandi and Shennong differ, based on the Yandi-Huangdi battle, is prejudiced by his subjectivity. Xu's Lushi Chunqiu suggested Shennongshi was the agriculture god or official, but Lushi Chunqiu actually praised Yandi teaching people to farm, thus honoring him as divine (Shennong). While Zhong Zi suggests Shennong is the period name, it must attach to a person. Shennong Zhong Zi may have been a late scholar and not a god. Based on all available data, I believe Yandi and Shennong are the same. The dual view was misled by ancestral worship and few ancient records, inspiring Shennongshi descendants to call themselves Yandi or Shennongshi.
(3) Origin of Yandi Shennongshi Title
The above clarifies where the names Yandi and Shennong arose, but for better understanding, I elaborate further:
The Warring States (403-221) Shi Jiao of Lu State says in Shi Zi: "In his rule, Shennong asks for rain as he wishes...falling at a time most beneficial to all, earning his divinity." As this was impossible, his "divinity" really describes his extraordinary ability and respect by common people...To honor his agricultural teaching, the character shen (divine, god) is placed before nong (agriculture, farming).
Yandi first occurs in Zuo Zhuan - Zhaogong 17th year: "Yandishi records the time based on fire, follows its virtue and names everything important after fire."
In sum, Yandi Shennongshi has other honorable names like Dihuang (Earth Supremacy), Nonghuang (Agriculture Supremacy), Nongdi (Agriculture Emperor), Shennong (Agriculture God) and Xiannong (Agriculture Ancestor). His descendants first and last names may include Nong (Agriculture), Gui (Law, Rules), Shinian (shi=stone, nain=age), Kuiweishi (kui=chief, wei=tall, shi=tribe), Yishishi (yi=he, shi=elder, shi=tribe), Datingshi (da=huge, ting=yard, shi=tribe), Lieshanshi, Lishanshi, Lianshanshi, Tongshanshi (the last four all places), etc. Obstacles peculiar to legends and myths ensue because all descendants and ancestors carry Yandi or Shennong names.
(4) Descendants of Yandi Shennongshi carry this name
Xima Zheng's Book of Sacrifice Ceremony says "Shennong descendants call themselves Yandi", causing great confusion to historians, further muddied by Yandi Shennong descendants' titles, names and appellations differing in ancient books.
Shan Hai Jing - Book of Inland says "Yandi's wife, Tinwu, delivered Yanju, who fathered Jiebin, the family continuing to Xiqi, Zhurong, Gonggong, Suqi, Houtu, Yiming and Suishi." But different names, titles and generation in Yandi's family in various books like Emperor Genealogy, Historic Records, Lu Shi Chun Qiu and He Guangyu's3 Shennongshi Genealogy are so confused historians can only say "Huangdi Yandi belongs to the same tribe, so Yandi descendants are Huangdi descendants." Some historians concede "different books record differently due to different hearsay."4
Despite such confusion, some records are unanimous that Yandi Shennongshi descendants all carry the name of Yandi or Shennong. Lu Shi says "Shennongshi has 13 sons and grandsons. Zekui and Zhu are his son or grandson. Zizhu or Dikui start to inherit the title of Yandi." As similar records exist in many other ancient books...it is clear Yandi Shennongshi descendants inherited the title of Yandi or Shennongshi even after moving to Hunan.
(5) Yandi Shennongshi descendants moved SE
After adopting primitive agriculture, Shennongshi left the nomadic Qiang and farmed, opening land east on the Wei River and reaching the rich Yellow Basin, settling first in Henan, then Shandong, as written in Emperor Genealogy and Historic Records - Genealogy of Three Ancient Rulers. Later, the Huangdi of Shaanxi Qishui followed the same route to Shandong, defeating the weakened Yandi and occupying the capital Qufu. The Yandi had to flee west to SE Shanxi, leaving many remains in Changzi, Yuci and Yushe Counties. Tang Dynasty's Li Jifu said in Yuanhe Prefecture Topography that Yangtou Mountain 50 miles S of Changzi had Shennong town atop and Shennong Creek below, the place where Shennong had good grain and where they farmed, the good "grain" being wild sorghum before domestication. A similar record is in the Book of Jijiazhou5.
The Yandi-Huangdi battle may have started the rebellion of the Chiyou, a Yandi Shennongshi subtribe who stayed with the clan and lived in Shandong. Book of Yizhou says "Chiyou was ordered to live near Shaofu to protect the country." Shaofu is now W of Shandong and E of Henan, the record clearly showing Chiyou as a feudal lord under Yandi in Yuwang. As the Chiyou's bronze arms surpassed wood or stone weapons, the rebellion began. Book of Yizhou continues: "Yandi was worried and asked help from Xuanyuanshi (Huangsi), who defeated and killed the Chiyou outside Shulu, all feudal lords honoring him as Huangdi (Yanhuang descendants' Emperor)".6 Yandi fought with Huangdi, but with Yuwang area and Chiyou's defeat, Yandi was replaced by Huangdi.
After losing Yuzhou Country in Yuwang, Yandi moved S to Yangtze and Han Rivers and settled in Suizhou Lixiang. The view rose that Shennongshi was born here because many Shennongshi remains occur. Song Dynasty Wang Chun's Yuanfong Nine City Topography says "Shennong Temple in Lixiang Village was built by Yandi - Topography of Several Counties." Many similar records occur; e.g.s, Qing Dynasty Zhang Yusu's Pei Wen Yun Fu says Shennong Cave is where Shennong picked medicinal plants; the nine-wells in Shennong community were made by Shennongshi, etc. Later, Yuwang's Yandi descendants fled S to Hunan when Huangdi continued to move his forces south.
(6) Yandi Shennongshi descendants enter Hunan
Sunzi Military Tactics - Battle between Huangdi and Chidi records Huangdi's military action south: "Huangdi chased Chidi to xx and fought at Fanshan"7...which may be now Banquan or Hebei's Zulu, Shanxi's Yangqu or Henan's Fugao Counties. But Sunzi Military Tactics says Banquan is south at any of these places. Perhaps Yandi descendants renamed their new settlement between Yangtze and Han Rivers as Banquan. Whatever, it proved Huangdi moved S to Hunan. When Yandi descendants were forced south, they retained the Yandi title, giving Huangdi the excuse to "send an army to conquer the disobediant and reach the Yangtze and the Xion and Xiang summits."8 Xion is Xioner Mountain, an ancient part of Henan's Qinling Mountain or Hunan's Xioner Mountain between Laiyang and Yiyang, the place where Huangdi ascended. Suo Yin's Jing Zhou records say "Xioner (xion=bear, er=ear) Mountain is NE of Laiyang and Yiyang Counties, its name derived from its earlike E and W peaks." Shi Ji's notes in Topographies say "Xiang or Bian Mountain is 18 miles S of Baling County, Yuzhou." Shui Jing Zhu says "Bian Mountain is NE of Jun at Dongting Lake, its separate peaks reflecting in the lake." Huangdi obviously crossed the Yangtze to Dongting Lake, the reason Yandi descendants entered Hunan. After years of political movement, they reached Jiuyi and Changwu in Hunan, where many legends and remains of Yandi Shennongshi persist.
Yandi's southward movement is recorded in many ancient books: a. Qing Dynasty Zhang Rensu's Han Book quoted in Pei Wen Yun Fu says "Yandi rides in Li Long south to Hengyang to announce summer agricultural business"; b. Huai Nan Zi says "South is the origin of fire, Chidi Yandi managing the same business"; and c. similar records occur in Book of Rites and Emperor Genealogy.
Yandi Shennongshi descendants spread over Hunan, the main branch reaching Chaling near Changsha. They were far from war and lived peacefully, prospering in three generations (Lu Shi - 4th Addendum). The 3rd Addendum says "Yandi died in Cha Village, then Chaling (Cha=tea, ling=emperor's tomb) or Tian Zi (heavenly son) tomb." Luo Ping, Luo Mi's son and Lu Shi author, personally investigated the place: "There remain >100 graves for empresses, princes, and princesses in the tomb", their remains suggesting Yandi descendants were prosperous. But Chaling's Yandi is not likely the one who led the tribe to Hunan, but a later chief retaining the Yandi title.
As some historians ignore Yandi Shennongshi research in agriculture because they believe he is legendary and agricultural archaeology should be independent of myth, You Xiuling reminds them: "The many myths and legends in agriculture and rice cultivation are worth attention and important in agricultural growth"9, as seen in the following sketches of Shennongshi.
(1) Time Gap between Shennongshi and agricultural origin
Based on ancient records and archaeological data, the Shennongshi period is in the 8000 year-old Middle Neolithic, but rice cultivation is believed to have started 10000-15000 years ago. 12000 year-old rice remains in Yuchanyan site Dao County, Hunan, clearly show a gap between Shennongshi period and primitive agriculture.
In harsh conditions and scarce hunting-gathering resources, agriculture grew via long observation, exploration, inspiration, practice and choice, its timing in the Palaeolithic-Neolithic transition to matrilineal society. Ancient people discovered the growing stages of collected seeds, melons, fruits, vegetables and other plants, finding wild seeds (e.g.s, rice, sorghum, millet) and fruit pits germinated, grew and bore fruit after scattering in the surroundings, eventually starting primitive agriculture. One cannot find who should have credit for inventing primitive agriculture.
Besides cultivation, primitive agriculture broadly includes livestock, poultry, fish, pottery, spinning, weaving, etc., that slowly grew via historical transformation Husbandry began when wild cattle, sheep, chicken, ducks, etc., captured for sacrifice or later food began breeding. Fish farms began after observing ponds, lakes and rivers for water fauna and flora. Similarly, pottery began for cooking grain, while spinning and weaving were inspired from collecting hemp or silkworms. Zhuang Zi says: "At that time, Shennongshi taught people to record events using knots on ropes, eat good food, make beautiful clothes, pursue good habits, live in safe places, keep good ties with nearby countries but minding ones own business. In Shennongshi period, people farmed for food, wove clothes and lived harmoniously with deer, virtue at its highest level." This food, clothing and habitat represent broad agricultural growth, the 8000 year-old middle Shennongshi period explaining its time gap and primitive agriculture.
Shennongshi's part in Neolithic agriculture may be proven by archaeology, as many remains suggesting plowshares for grain cultivation have been found in the last 50 years; e.g.s, worn dual-toothed plough in Henan's Shaan County and Shaanxi's Lingtong; wood plough & spade in Bashidang, Hunan; and wood plowshare in Hemudu, Zhejiang. All overlap Shennongshi records of "cutting and straightening wood to make plows and shares, and teaching the benefit of these tools in farming."10 It also verifies the stone engraving of "Shennongshi holding plough" in Han Dynasty Liang Temple, Shandong.
The classics reiterate Shennongshi grew "five grains": ji & shu (broomcorn & panicled millet), mai (wheat), shu (pulses) and dao (rice). Ma (hemp or seed) replaces rice in some literature. As one crop mi zi, both millets differ in their stickiness. They, pulse and wheat occur in the NW and Yellow Basin, with rice in Yangtze and south. Many 6000-8000 year-old millet, wheat and pulse remains are in Yellow Basin, while >100,000 catties of millet were in 88 granaries in Hebei's 8000 year-old Wuan site11, all proving the period of Shennongshi and his area match ancient records.
As primitive agriculture began with residents, Shennongshi was a person and/or tribe; first a possible chief; later a tribe, with the title following.
(2) Implication of Yandi Zhu on primitive agricultural growth
Shennongshi's successor and son Yandi Zhu spent his energy in agricultural growth. Lu Shi - Yandi's Genealogy mentions "Yandi Zhu, son of Shennong", while Zuo Zhuan - Zhaogong 29th year says "Lieshanshi's son Zhu knows how to grow millet." Book of Rites - Rules of worshiping says "Lishanshi became ruler; his son Nong (agriculture) knows how to grow grain." Kong Yinda says "Nong mentions a Lishanshi descendant Zhu knows how to grow grain. Therefore, National Languages says he is Shennong. As Zhu officially handles agriculture, he is also named Nong." Qing Dynasty Liang Yusheng's Some Vague Points in Shi Ji says "Lieshanshi's son is Ji or Nong", the character ji (panicled millet) implying Zhu introduced or knew how to grow millet. Some notes say the character nong (agriculture) originally meant "slash-and-burn", an early agricultural trait promoted by Zhu and his father, Shennongshi (Lieshan or burning mountain). In "jia she" (jia=farming, she=harvest), hill trees and grass are burned, seeds sowed and crops cultivated and harvested, a process also called "huo geng" (huo=fire, geng=to cultivate), probably the "virtue of fire" cited by ancient rulers.
The character zhu depicts "slash-and-burn" agriculture in a digging stick or plough handle, a house pillar illustrating settled life or a clan totem. Han Dynasty Hen Kuan's Guan Zi (Essay on metal and salt) and Qing Dynasty Huang Benyi's Hunan Local Topography says it can be sharpened for digging and sowing in ash-covered ground.12 Today, some Yunnan and Hainan minorities retain this method of "huo liao zhang zhong" (huo=fire, liao=burning, zhang=stick, zhong=planting), but cultivation cannot be prolonged due to ecological damage. Engels says "people destroy wild plants to sow grain because they know they can have multiple harvests"13.
Yandi Zhu period people abandoned nomadism, Shuo Wen saying "zhu is a pillar", Duan Yuca adding "it represents master of the home." As"slash-and-burn" depletes fertility, farmers abandoned land in 1-2 years, starting again nearby, but after many years moved away, only to return in 8-10 years when fertility recovered. Some never returned or lingered shortly. Easily built houses were needed after each move, a center pole representing "master", encircled by a fence but simpler than the southern balustrade style house. Found in Shaanxi's Lingtong Jiangzhai and Xian's Banpao sites, it may have been invented by Yandi Zhu.
Zhu is also a clan totem, marking annually renewed fields as property, females normally not helping in "slash-and-burn". Males use zhu as digging sticks, followed by females sowing, and final marking with another totem. Living quarters are rotated, with clan totems marking territory, usually the ruler's living quarters. The totem then becomes an authority symbol and clan totel, the higher and bigger the more wealth, and spread over every province, even today's SW minorities; e.g., Qing Dynasty Lu Ciyun's Topography of Dongxi says "in spring, people put poles in the field, dancing happily about them. The Liao call this 'luo han lou', the Youmiao 'gui gan'." In north Oroqen dialect, zhu means house and paternal family - several forming a commune, and like the Yandi Zhu social system, implying Yandi descendants spread all over, possibly NE to Siberia and S to Hainan. Some archaeologists and anthropologists suggest North American Indians moving to America from NE China via Siberia had the colorful totem, but if true they descend from Chinese. Yandi Zhu went far beyond primitive agriculture to world religious totems.
(3) Titles of Shennongshi descendants and primitive agriculture
Besides Yandi Zhu, Ling Kui (also recognized as 3rd generation Di Ling and 5th generation Di Kui by He Guangyue14), Di Cheng, Di Ming, Di Zhi, Di Lei, Di Ai and Yu Wang are Yandi Shennongshi descendants historically praised for contributing to primitive agriculture.
Ling in Ling Kui's name means "qin ling" (personal visit), "shi cha" (inspect) and "zhi li" (manage). Er Ya says "ling means see or inspect.", Zheng Zi Tong adding it "indicates high position people visiting subordinates", showing he was a leader who treated subjects as brothers and sisters and working together in fields. Ling may also mean "rule" or "manage"' e.g., Jia Kui's National Languages says it means "ruling." Kui in Ling Kui's implies "head", "big" or "teacher". Guang Ya adding "kui, large", Wang Pian "kui, head" and Zheng Xuan "to teach his people". Under him, agriculture prospered.
Ruler Di Cheng continued Shennongshi's work, "cheng" meaning "to follow the right order". With full production over 3-4 generations he inherited the title, implying he was a great manager who elevated primitive agriculture.
"Ming" in Emperor Di Ming denotes ability to evaluate agricultural products. Under him, good or suitable crops were selected and preserved, making agriculture thrive. Yu Pian adds "ming, able to observe.", Zheng Zi Tong "ming, able to discern" and Gao Xiu "ming implies prosperous", all supporting Di Ming's governorship.
"Zhi" (straight) in Di Zhi's name is synonymous with "zhi" (planting), a pole or housemaster. Sun Zhiyi's Zheng Yi says "zhi is a straight standing pole", Du Yu adding "Zhi, leader of generals", implying a leader honoring the totem and continuing after Shennongshi and Yandi Zhu. "Guang Yu says "zhi means planting", Huai Nan Zi "grain", Gao Xiu "growing" and Guang Ya "many". All show he taught people to improve cultivation by line broadcast for better yields.
Di Li is also recorded as Di Lei. Geographic Dictionary says "li" means where merchants live", suggesting he promoted primitive trade. Book of Han Dynasty Fan Hong chapter says "foods and goods are the first two commodities in the 8 policies. Food is agricultural grain and other edibles, goods are cloth for clothes, metal and other trade items. All are major needs initiated by Shennongshi." Song Dynasty Liu Su's Addendum to Zi Zhi Tong Jian - Historic synopsis since Zhou Dynasty says "Shennongshi demarcates the marketplace, allowing trade to start at mid-day, helping civilize the country." Li is synonymous with "lei" or wheat; e.g.s, Book of Odes "Heaven gives me lai mo, emperor leads better life", Zhu Xi "Lei, wheat; mo, barley" and Song Yingsing's Tian Gong Kai Wu (Heaven's work in inventing things) "there are several wheat-like crops; lei being the most common, barley is mo." All suggest Di Li was not only the inventor of market trading but an expert or promoter of wheat and wheat-like cultivation.
Di Ai is also known as Di Ju, "ai" (pity) a synonym of "ai" (love). Definition of Names says "ai" or love means always on the mind, while "ju" (inhabit) means safe peaceful abode. Huai Nan Zi says "when clothes and food are plentiful, people have no evil thoughts. When everyone is safe and happy, no gap between rich and poor exist." Book of Shang Emperor Agriculture says "when 9 of 10 are farmers, the nation is strong; when half are farmers and the rest do nothing the nation is in peril." "Ju" also means storage place, implying excess harvest. Granaries were full because Di Ai loved his subjects and organized national work.
Yu Wang is also known as Can Lu. Yuan Liaoshi's Addendum to Zi Zhi Tong Jian says "the state built by Shennongshi ended at Di Yu Wang, the 8th generation descendant." Historical Records - Genealogy of the First Emperors says "the virtue of Xuan Yuan Shennongshi's descendants weakened", Suo Ying adding "Can Lu's virtue weakened not Yan Di." Two points are clarified: 1. Di Yu Wang is also Can Lu, and 2. the weakness is not Yu Wang's condition but the political situation, due to Chi You's rebellion and the rise of Huang Di. But Di Yu Wang advanced agricultural growth, "yu" meaning elm and "wang" weaving. His clan planted elm around fields as protection against insects and wind. Even after expulsion south, his clan thanked him for establishing agriculture, honoring him as Yan Di.
When Huang Di invaded south, Yandi Shennongshi and his clan were forced to Juyi and Cangwu Mountains near Dongting Lake, beginning early agriculture and leaving many remains and legends depicting ancient Hunan rice culture recorded in ancient literature and local topographies.
(1) Yandi Shennongshi's Hunan crop remains and legends
Yandi Shennongshi is tied to Hunan placenames like Jiahe County, Qitienling, Leishan, Shennongshan, Chisongshan, Shanzhou, Chaling and Yanling. Jiahe County (jia=good, he=harmony) formed in Ming Dynasty, but Jiahe (jia=good, he=growing grain) tied to Shennongshi is ancient. Wang Yinzhang's Jiahe County Study says "Jiahe (good grain) is a granary, with good grain bestowed from heaven in the Yandi period. After collecting it, Shennong taught people how it grew and built granaries there, becoming a county named Jiahe after its grain." A granary now marks where Shennongshi found the "heavenly seeds". Yi Zhou Shu says "when millet rained from heaven in Shennong period. Shennong planted it." All are myths, but agree with Shennongshi descendants coming to Hunan. Shennongshi descendants reached Juyi Cangwu in Ningyuan County near Jiahe County. Qitienling in Yizhang County where Shennong farmed, and Guiyang County are reasonably close. Qi River is N of Guiyang County, while Jiahe County is S of Qi River, matching Shennong's record of growing grain at "S of Qi River". Guan Zi says "after Shennong grew grain S of Qi Mountain, grain was eaten throughout China." Qi Mountain and River are original placenames in Hui County, Henan Province, where Yandi descendants moved. "Qi" is phonetically "qi" (riding), explaining the placename change from Qi Mountain to Qitienling (tien =field, ling=tall mountain), a remain from Shennongshi descendants. Legends from Hengyand Hunan says Chizishi, a Shennongshi descendant, ploughed in Leishan Shenzhou, while Ming Dynasty Topography says "Leishui began in Leishan in Shenzhou." Lei River begins in Pingshuishan, Guidong County, and flows 355 km through Guidong, Lucheng, Zixing, Shenxian, Yongxing, Leiyang and Hengyang Counties. Despite its high mountains and restricted fields, Shennongshi descendants settled, making "lei si" (lei=plough, si=plowshare) and deriving the placenames Leishan and Leishui. Leiyang County is named after Leishui's yang (S or place facing the sun) side, where the legendary "Battle between Yandi and Shanshen" is where the former asked the latter to burn his ploughs and lead his people back to the forest, showing ancient agriculture moved from forest to rice paddy.
Supporting Shennongshi descendants coming to Hengyang area, the Qingquan County Topography says Shennongshan is 40 km SW of the city limit in Hengnan County, with Shennong Temple top this mountain.
Regarding Chisongzishan (Mountain), Village and Pavilion called Chisongzi, legends say Chisongzi is Shennongshi's rainmaster, who accompanied his clan to Hunan, leaving many remains in Shenzhou, Zixing, Liuyang, Huayong, Cili, etc. Liuynag County Topography says Chi Songzi practiced asceticism in Chisongzishan. Chisongshan and Village are in Cili County, but Ming Dynasty Topography says the Pavilion is in Huayong County. The site 12 km from Huayong County is a 7000 year-old Daxi grave, perhaps left by Shennongshi descendants. It had rice husks in terra cotta, carbonized rice in ashpits, axes, spades, sickles and other tools 15.
As "ling" means tomb (esp. emperor's), many placenames come from famous tombs; e.g., Chaling from its tea (cha) and Yandi's tomb. Lu Yu's Everything about Tea says "Chaling is famous for tea." It is the Western Han Dynasty Hou State base, the Cha wang cheng (Tea King city) built in Yuanshu 2nd year (127 BC) by Liu Xing and a formal county in Yuanfeng 5th year (106 BC) belonging to "Changsha State". The placename Chaling shows Yandi's tomb was built here as early as Western Han. "Yandi died and was buried in Changsha's end", now Beiluyuan in Yanling County. Southern Song Dynasty Wang Xiangzi says in Picturesque Landmarks "Yandi tomb is at Beiluyuan in Kangle Village, one mile S of Chaling." The original Yandi Temple was built in Tang Dynasty and destroyed, but rebuilt in early Northern Song Dynasty, "Yandi's statue wearing emperor robe and crown". Today's new "cha ling" temple was built in Song Dynasty Qiande 5th year (967), the adjacent Ling and Di Counties reorganized in Jiading 4th year (1211). Hengyang County Topography says "Yandi Shennongshi was buried in Ling County Kangle Village, commemorated by a temple in Song Dynasty Qiande 5th year, managed by an officer." Ling County was originally in Han Dynasty honoring Shennongshi's "amazing ability, noble traits and everlasting merit"16, plus depicting Hua Xia (Chinese) children unifying the motherland"17. The State Council renamed Ling County as Yenling County in 1955.
Yandi Shennongshi left many remains and legends; e.g.s, Chaling's and Yanling's "Hundred Tastes" Pavilions where he tested medicinal plants, "Origin of Bailuyuan", "Yandi and his Three Mothers", "Dragon Descendants". Ming Dynasty Zhen Helin's Story of Yan Ling says a "xiu cai" (pre-Republic graduate equal to bachelor degree) said: "Elders told me when Song Emperor was praying to earlier emperors and kings, he could not find Shennongshi's temple for his sacrifice. One night he dreamt of a divine old man with a hat of bamboo splinters and holding two torches, who told him to look for "it" in the south. The Emperor sent an envoy, an old man revealing Yandi's tomb, where the Emperor honored Yandi. Ever since it has become an official ceremony."18 The farmer-like man with bamboo hat "holding two fires" implies Yandi because the character "yan" comprises "huo" (fire), one atop the other. Luo Ping's Lu Shi says "when Yandi was dying he told his subordinates to bury him in the south where the flag points at the bridge." While a legend, Bailuyuan has a Qiaoliangling (qiao liang=bridge, ling=summit) and Qitouling (qi=flag, tou=head or point, ling=summit) 10 miles SW of the tomb. Yandi's metal "ding" (2-handled tripod for cooking) for testing medicinal plants is atop Qiaoliangling, its engravings with unreadable characters. If this "ding" is Yandi's, it must be Bronze Age, with "Yandi" a Shennongshi descendant. As Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties expanded south, Yandi descendants moved south to Hunan. The Chaling Yandi burial may not be Yandi's but a descendant. Lou Ping says the "Chimei opened the tomb to find only Yandi's robe and hat", but these may have been left in commemoration. Lu Shi says >200 graves of Yandi's empresses and concubines remain in Yanling, a clan cemetery.
Shennongshi left many agricultural remains and legends in Hunan, a noted one being advanced agricultural technology from Zhongyuan (Henan) which preserved Shennongshi in history. Yandi tomb was visited by emperors and their delegates 15 times in Ming and 38 in Qing Dynasty, with common sacred rites starting with North Qi State (550-577). Sacred rites for Yandi says "of all ancient great people, Yandi was the greatest achiever and enjoys the highest posthumous fame."19
(2) Significance of Hunan rice culture in the world
Chinese archaeological research in rice culture started in the 1970's. In the 1980's, Hunan's Li County's Liyang Plain and Mengxi Village sites and Dao County Yuzhanyan site produced much 8000-12000 year-old rice, placing China in the lead and making Hunan especially world significant. Some scholars said "Dongting Basin is the rice culture origin for both China and world, and the cradle of Chinese race and civilization", sharing with Africa as a world centre of rice origin.20 Other scholars caution the "probability that Chinese rice origin or cultivation is the middle Yangtze River."21 When 8000 year-old carbonized rice occurred in Jia Lake, Wuyang County, Henan, in 1983, scholarly thought expanded to "the middle Yangtze and upper Huai Rivers as two cultivated rice origins growing simultaneously."22 But centres actually added another as intermediate between Dongting Plain and middle Yangtze to upper Huai River. But all really support one centre of origin for cultivated rice.
Although discussed elsewhere, I believe in multiple centres, with support as follows: (1) cultivated rice's wild ancestor thrived south of Yellow River, allowing multiple origins; (2) Qiang, Yue, Dongyi, Fengyi, Niaoyi, Juli, Fuxi, Huaixu and Hanyuan hunter-gatherers on the Yellow and Yangtze repeatedly observed life cycles of plants and began cultivating them, creating independent origins. Zhuang Zi says "counties are so close you can hear cocks crow and dogs bark, but people never saw each other", an isolated hunter-gatherer life where people cultivated plants and need not move far except to escape war. (3) the oldest rice need not mean its origin, as later older remains may change the story. Under segregated and subjective conditions, different origins may exist at different times, sometimes 1-2000 years. The theory of an origin for rice or other crops need not await results from other centres of origin. (4) multiple origins can be in Africa, south Asia and China, the latter with many possible centres due to widespread wild rice and suitable climate. (5) Some scholars suggest "Pengtoushan and Jia Lake people domesticated wild rice to become China's first centre of origin due to limited collection or cold weather survival elsewhere."23 This theory could not withstand deliberation analyzed in Exploration and consideration of Chinese cultivated rice origin)24, summarized as: a. no matter population size, good Dongting Basin renewable hunter-gatherer resources were unable to generate "intense survival pressure"; b. if resources really fell, the land beyond Pengtoushan could still support hunter-gatherers; c. "As Pengtoushan and Jia lake economy was rice-based with some fishing and hunter-gathering, indicating incipient farming", how could it exert "intense survival pressure"?; d. As the 400km between Dongting's Pengtoushan and Henan's Jia Lake via the Yangtze was a huge ancient gap excluding joint "falling resources", the theory of "intense survival pressure" is biased.
From the above I do not support a single origin, but Hunan's lead in ancient rice cultivation is very significant, not only attracting world scholars of rice origin, but making them reconsider the old theory of rice spread from India across S Asia, Assam-Yunnan to Yangtze River, opening a new page on world rice origin.
Hunan's 10000 years of rice cultivation selected some varieties. Qing Dynasty Huang Benji's Hunan Product Topography says ">100 rice cultivars, including early, middle and late types, grow. That for winemaking is "nuo" (glutinous), that on hills "han dao" (dry)", adding from Provincial Topography "nuo" is sticky, "geng" non-glutinous", plus 163 other varieties. He says Hunan's high yield was due to "Farmers benefitting from the land to provide for themselves and others, politicians using the wealth and steady life style for easy management."25 Local people and Shennongshi's followers took this advantage and started primitive rice cultivation.
(3) Value of rice culture in Shennongshi legends
Yandi Shennongshi Stories like "Divine dragon feeling", "Human with cow head", "Good crops from heaven", "Chestnuts from sky" and "Those who eat Yandi's 9-spiked rice brought by a red bird will never die", are fables, but tie closely with the origin of primitive agriculture and rice culture, and are significant.
Then what is myth? We need not consult a dictionary because Lu Xun gives a thorough definition on its origin: "primitive people in the wilderness sense continuous uncontrolled change in wind, rain and earthquake, wonders beyond their knowledge. As causal, they believe in a super-being or "shen" (god, spirit), inventing "shen hua" (shen=spirits, hua=talk) or myths which they combine with people to create "half-spirit" stories where the main character is a hero who succeeds by divine right."26 As Lu Xun's Brief history of Chinese novels says "most myth is based on the spirit, its narration inducing followers to worship it or its heroism by putting it in a temple"27, a situation like Shennongshi being treated as a god.
The "divine dragon feeling" story shows Shennongshi's conception by the will of heaven. People were functionally ignorant, the father absent in matrilineal society and descendants proud of their unique ancestor; e.g., Xu Shen's Strange Stories of Wu Jin says "sages born by heaven's will" are her sons. Shuo Wen says "ancient sages of human mother and god are "tianzi" (tian=heaven,sky; zi=son)" or emperor. Shennong is emperor because he was conceived by a divine dragon, Chinese calling themselves "dragon descendants", the dragon their symbol. Today, this story remains popular at Yandi Shennongshi's birthplace and grave, not pure coincidence with "divine dragon feeling" but "dragon as ancestor, dignity for people."28 His merit in early agriculture for generations is everlasting in China.
The "human body and cow head" myth shows Shennong's agricultural image, as stockraising grew with agriculture. It honors ancestors, the Yanling Topography saying "society mistakenly mixed buffalo and Shennong because farming depended on water buffalo. This is why Shennong's statue in Jiaxiang Temple, Shandong, has buffalo horns. Some think this story hurt Shennong's reputation, as "humans differ from animals, especially a sage...it is therefore not easily believed by scholars", who change the buffalo head to a crown.29 Song Dynasty's first Emperor built a "temple with Yandi wearing an emperor's robe and crown"30, but it was changed to look like a dragon with horns symbolizing the myth of "human body and cow head".
The "heavenly crops", "sky chestnuts" and "red bird brings 9-spiked rice" legends record agricultural origins. After thousands of years of myth, farmers did not understand crop origin from wild plants, believing in heavenly gift. They thought seeds carried by Yandi descendants were such gifts, with Shennong's crops improved by domestication. This may explain the gap between 10000 year-old agricultural origin and 8000 year-old Shennong farming.
The tool period myth "Use correct tool for straight lines, then cover with soil to guide river water" shows agriculture grew from "slash-and-burn" on the hill to rice cultivation in the valley, a big leap from primitive to developed agriculture.
While ancient myth is primitive artistic expression of the divine or symbolized natural phenomenon (how people control natural energy), we cannot scientifically use it to study agricultural origin. But we may be able to find some clue or inspiration in understanding agricultural or archaeological data. In Searching for Gods, "Shennong studies hundreds of grasses to understand their good, poisonous, cold or hot traits, and why they smell. He plants them to save people so they will honor him as god." This passage shows crops were lengthily observed before being eaten, revealing the process of agricultural origin. As Shennongshi shaped wood to make ploughs, as seen in excavation, certain myths plus archaeological data may help search for agricultural origin. By their study we understand primitive life and its reflection on civilization. Myths help us understand ancient people, natural phenomenon, social life, struggle with natural environment and life pursuit. Unlike superstition, an understanding of myth's romantic enthusiasm embodied in Yandi Shennongshi inspires us to study primitive agriculture from another angle, enriching ancient Chinese rice culture.
(1)(3)(14) He Guangyue: Shennongshi and primitive agriculture, Agricultural Archaeology, 1984(2)
(2) Nanjing University Journal, 1984(1)
(4) Yuan Ke: Notes on Shan Hai Jing, Guizhou People's Pub. Agency, 1991:303-348
(5) Book of Jijiazhou (Book of Yizhou), Zhu Youzhen of Qing Dynasty elaboration
(6)(8) Shi Ji - History of 25 periods, 1986(2):6, Ancient Book Publishing House, Shanghai
(7) Sunzi Military Tactics - Story engraved on bamboo sticks in Yingqueshan Han graves, Cultural Features Publishing House, 1975:32
(9) You Xiuling: History of Chinese Rice Cultivation, China Agriculture Publishing House, 1995:4
(10) Book of Zhou Yi, China Publishing House, 1980:308,
(11) Chishan Ruins in Wuan, Hebei Province, Archaeology Journal, 1981 (6)
(12) Originally from Huazhai Diary by Xu Guan of Song Dynasty
(13) Engels: Natural Dialectic, People's Publishing Agency, 1971:157,
(15) He Jiejuan: Hunan Neolithic Culture, Hunan Archaeology Academic Society 3rd Symposium Paper
(16) An address of consecration written in Ming Dynasty - Yandi and Yandi's Tomb, Guangming Daily Publishing House, 1988:48
(17) Comments in Hunan Daily News, June 28, 1986
(18) Yandi's Tomb Records in Yandi and Yandi's Tomb, Guangming Daily Publishing House, 1988:74
(19) Lou Luhuai: Hunan Literature Records, vol. 32
(20) Agricultural Archaeology, 1994(3):69
(21) Agricultural Archaeology, 1998(1):212
(22)(23) Agricultural Archaeology, 1998(1):12
(24) Agricultural Archaeology, 1998 (1)
(25) Huang Benji: Hunan Products Topography, Yue Lu Literature Society, 1985:1-7
(26) Complete Works of Lu Xun - Historic change in Chinese novels, People's Literature Society Publication, 1957(8):314-315
(27) Complete Works of Lu Xun, People's Literature Society Publication, 1957(8):11
(28) National languages - Chu language, Yue Lu Literature Society, 1994:375
(29)(30) Yandi's Tomb in Luyuanpo, Yue Lu Literature Society, 1997:51