GUANGXI AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHINESE RICE CULTIVATION

ZHANG, Jianghua

Guangxi Institute of National Studies, Nanning, Guangxi Province, PR China

        As Guangxi agriculture suggests backwardness in Chinese history from past to present, it is only given secondary status. This article by no means reverses this verdict, but elicits instances explaining its rice agricultural history in some special ways, as well as explaining the function of its border area to the growth of its cultural center.

1. GUANGXI AND THE QUESTION OF CHINESE RICE ORIGINS

        This paper explores regional rice origin and spread three ways. 1. biologically and genetically testing wild rice distribution; 2. archaeologically tracing from paddy rice remains; and linguistically via terminology. In the last few years, gradually increasing data diversify conclusions, but these remain the only research methods.

        Guangxi is generally included with Guangdong and Fujian as part of South China. Guangxi as a rice agricultural origin was made by famous agronomist Prof. Ying Ding. Regarding South China origins [1], famous paddy rice expert Dr. De Ci Zhang of IRRI (International Rice Research Institute) advocates Asian rice agricultural origins in a belt from India to Yunnan to Fujian-Taiwan, a broad region also containing Guangxi. The above two viewpoints stem from genetics. As origin overlapped wild rice distribution, Guangxi is also often considered from its rich wild rice resources.

        As Guangxi's special status and recognition in rice origin began only after recent finds, two large-scale investigations began to study its wild rice resources. 188 units were organized in 1978-80 to survey wild rice in 85 counties and cities. As a result, wild rice distribution occurred in 42 counties and cities [2] between Guilin City Yan Lin people's commune in the north (25°11' N. Lat.) to He Pu county Ying Pan people's commune in the south (21°28' E. Long.), and from He Xian Fu Gate people's commune in the east (111°11' E. Long.) to Bai Se county Na Bi people's commune in the west (106°22 '). Guangxi wild rice distribution has the following traits, according to this survey:

(1) infrequent west and north, with none in counties near Yunnan and Kweichow, and more in the mid-south, especially down rather than upriver. Thus, the possibility of wild rice passing via the river in Yunnan and Kweichow to Guangxi is remote.

(2) Guangxi has wide distribution but fragmented (Gui county Xin Tang has >400 mu). Some also occurs in river ditches that extend intermittently >30 kms.

(3) ecologically, Guangxi wild rice grows on banks of streams, ditches, basins, reservoirs, deserted ponds and even isolated bogs and beside villages near wide hills [3].

        A general survey synthesis infers very widespread areas of wild rice distribution since ancient times; i.e., from seed resources there is enough for domesticating rice in Guangxi. Moreover, collected hybrid results of common wild rice and cultivated indica confirms good affinity between them. (p.74)

        From 1980-5, Guangxi Institute of Agricultural Sciences organized wild rice investigations in 13 counties in Guangxi, Hunan and Jiangxi. Original ecotones and wild rice traits show it had two distinct ecotypes: "(1) a broadly distributed perennial runner; and (2) a deep water perennial from Guangxi (Chongzuo county Jiangzhou and Gui county Xintang towns) and Hunan (Chaling county Raoshui town). There is no report for this type of discovery abroad [4]. According to the Institute: (1) the broad perennial runner ecotype is primitive wild rice, while the other evolved from deep water runners. Besides featural changes caused by waterlevel (including ground temperature), it also retains basic traits of perennial ecotypes; (2) perennial ecotype stalk pleomorphism is possibly controlled by multi-genes in the regulation system (including dominant and recessive high stalk and short stalk genes). The perennial ecotype inclined to deep water possibly evolved from the perennial runner ecotype, maintaining dominant tall and recessive short stalk genes under long term exposure to deep water. The recessive short stalk gene found in cultivated rice is possibly from perennial inclined ecotype; (3) resistance to cold and aging in the perennial inclined ecotype is weaker. Under human choice and cultivation, annual ecotypes evolve more easily than perennials; (4) mid and upper parts of perennial inclined ecotype stand straighter, while under human choice and cultivation, straight growing habits more easily evolve; and (5) perennial incline ecotypal nature is basically normal, the grain ear longer in the weakly photosensitive warm type and seed quantity is higher". From a cultivation perspective, "humans more easily accept the perennial runner ecotype, suggesting the perennial inclined ecotype is more likely to be the close ancestor of cultivated rice then the perennial runner ecotype in China [5]".

        As current research and investigation are incomplete, we cannot determine other distributions of so-called inclined wild rice ecotype, but the above conclusion indicates Guangxi wild rice possibly had extremely important status and special origin significance. Recent archaeological finds reconfirm the aforementioned assumption; e.g.s, Hunan Archaeological Institute found 9000 year-old cultivated rice remains in Pengtoushan, Li County, plus two stalks of >10,000 year-old paddy rice in Yuchanyan (commonly called Hama Cave), Shouyan Town, Dao County. Testing shows one stalk excavated in 1993 is common wild rice with traces of human early intervention, while initial microscopy of the other stalk found in 1995 confirms cultivated rice, but with combined traits of wild, indica and nonglutinous rice [6]. Though its detailed report remains unpublished, it is significant for the following reasons:

(1) it is almost certain this area is one origin of rice agriculture because academic circles consistently suggest agriculture originated at the end of the Pleistocene 10,000 years ago, and excavated cultivated rice remains from Dao County were about this age.

(2) it proves modern cultivated rice evolved from wild rice. Considering Dao County borders Guangxi Province, with the aforementioned distribution of wild rice, we may draw the overall picture of how cultivated rice evolved.

(3 Dao County paddy remains has cleared doubts of rice agriculture origin. While Yan Wenming said paddy rice expanded from its original center in "weaving" style, as represented by Hemudu (original Hangzhou Bay center), he fails to explain Thailand’s Ban Qing cultural phenomenon. On this point, Tong En Zheng predicted >10 years ago that cultivated paddy remains older than Hemudu possibly existed in South China, the area being the real origin of paddy cultivated rice. Excavated paddy remains in Dao County proved his prediction and solved the problems of paddy origin. If we consider Dao County in South China as the original paddy rice center, Pengtoushan in Li County and Wannian’s Xian Ren Dong in Jiangxi constitute the first expansion, then down the Yangtze to Hemudu and Luo Jia Jiao, and up to Yungui Highlands, and into India and the remains of Ma Ha Jia La. It went south through Guangxi and southeast to form the Ban Qing culture in Thailand. In fact, the Dao County finds unite the different points of view of geneticists and archaeologists.

        Historical linguistic research reaches the same results.

        In ancient literature, two familiar sources are quoted: (1) Shan Hai Jing, Hai Nei Jing said "between SW Black Water near a wild valley of Hou Ji (Emperor Shun’s minister of agriculture) are paste-type beans, rice and panicled millet growing alone in hundreds of valleys, with sowing winter and summer", and (2) Shuowen: "From standing grain, a wool sound." Yin Yi said, "the beauty of rice is Xuan Shan grain and hou of the Southern Sea". Both describe South China products at that time. The sound of "paste" in paste beans and rice is pronounced kau, which means rice generally in Zhuang language, which contrasts Han language, so Zhuang terms will be put first. As hau means rice in modern Zhuang, "paste beans and rice" in Zhuang can be translated directly as "bean and rice valley". According to this clue, Ru Jie You’s statistical work >10 years ago was to count areas where kau meaning rice in ancient Zhuang Dong was pronounced. Another clue is where the same sound as na meaning rice field in Zhuang Dong language occurs, plus na placename distribution for Zhuang people. Zu Jie You thinks SW Guangxi, S Yunnan, N Vietnam, N Laos, N Thailand and Dan Bang in Burma are origins of Asian cultivated rice on word frequency [9]. While You Ru Jie’s logic is limited because the same word culturally disseminates, it has important significance: (1) it confirms Zhuang Dong’s long history of paddy rice; (2) some stability of language in cultural dissemination and origin allows two ways of naming its first introduction: (a) sound translation and (b) language borrowing; e.g., word for wheat. If the Zhuang Dong learned paddy rice from others, they would have language traces. In contrast, there might be an independent origin of paddy rice; with (3) Ru Jie You developing a new path of thought in terms of paddy rice origin; i.e., if we are certain who were the earliest cultivators, then their original homeland would be a paddy rice origin. And Ru Jie You thinks the aforementioned area is the homeland of the original Zhuang Dong.

        Analogies occurred before in foreign countries. In 1967, American linguist Paul K. Benedict published an article on Australian-Dai, wherein the ancient Dai, Kam-Sui (like Dai), Ong-Be and Kadai, plus the Indonesian and Austronesian language families, jointly constitute a common branch of a larger Australian-Dai family called Austro-Thai. I believe people who spoke this language originated in South China, and moved to South Asia. Word root analysis and comparison show farm product names like paddy rice, banana, coconut, ginger, sugar cane, sweet potato, taro; and related terms like rice field, vegetable garden, mortar for husking rice, plough, seed and strain; are all borrowed from Australian-Dai. Thus, they were possibly created by South Chinese people speaking Australian-Dai who spread to the Yellow River Valley [10].

        After lengthy research, Prof. Hong Gui Fan of Guangxi Institute of National Study recently confirmed Guangxi's Zhuang and Dai minorities as one group [11], an important lingustic conclusion verifying Benedict’s view; i.e., evidence proving Zhuang ancestors in Guangxi domesticated rice. We know historians are convinced Zhuang ancestors were generally called Yueh (ancient name of Chekiang, Fukien & Kwangtung). Ancient papers show the Yueh were in most early paddy rice areas. Combining all data, we can assume paddy rice was grown 10,000 years ago in South China at 26°. Zhuang rice cultivators also spread paddy rice to south Asia and other areas.

        Even if Guangxi is not the central paddy rice origin, it should be China’s earliest, but Neolithic paddy rice traces have not been found. In contrast, historic and ethnologic data show its first agriculture was not paddy rice, but tuberous plants [12].

        This is not hard to understand, with the same conclusions about crop origin. While it is likely paddy rice originated in marginal areas of wild paddy rice and spread using different techniques, we can infer much ancient wild paddy rice and other resources in Guangxi. Under such abundant resources, it is possible ancient Guangxi people knew of paddy rice, but ignored its production or adopted very little of it. As flourishing paddy rice most likely accompanied rapid population growth, the current situation suggests it is likely these areas saw paddy rice origin not only for China, but Asia, despite Guangxi’s retarded paddy rice growth and undeveloped marginal area.

2. JIANGZI RICE AND ITS SPREAD

        South Song Dynasty’s Xiang Wang described an excellent Sung Dynasty indica rice in Xiangzhou (Guangxi administrative district) in Yu Di Ji Sheng, vol. 105: Guang-Nan-Xi-Lu, Xiangzhou customs description: "there are abundant fields in Xiangzhou with waist-deep jade-coloured grain, the best in South China, with neighboring counties borrowing its rice". Xiang Wang said this was excerpted from Shi Ying Ding’s Xiang Jun Zhi, but as this paper is lost and we know nothing of Ding, one cannot say when Xiangzhou’s "long jade grain" first appeared. As Yu Di Ji Sheng was written in 1227 A.D., and Xiangzhou Zhi before the 12^th century, long grain rice must have been grown for some time, and influenced its surroundings, so we conclude that it first appeared in Guangxi no later than the 12^th century.

        The significance of the appearance of this excellent rice to us is not only that it spread in Guangxi in Song Dynasty, but more importantly, it spread to many areas in China in the next 1,000 years, especially Jiangxi and Zhejiang, and it became famous throughout ancient China.

        "Long rice" first grown in Jiangxi and Zhejiang is not later than 11^th century, as one of the earliest local Song Dynasty documents, Wu Jun Tu Jing Shu Xu, Yuan Feng 7^th year, or 1084 A.D., mentions "different kinds of Su district rice (arrow-shaped best which was offered to the emperor). Their names and quality vary, with harvest depending on the farmer’s ability and his field quality. The aforementioned jianzi rice is clearly described in the famous poem Lao She Geng by Song Dynasty’s Cheng Da Fan. His Su district rice description has a phrase "long rice like a slim Pao Xi" (thin and narrow like bottle gourd seeds). His footnotes also say "long thin rice is jianzi rice". Later descriptions all match these traits. In Jiangxi and Zhejiang, this rice was called "arrow" for nearly a millenium. The document about jianzi rice in Jiangxi and Zhejiang areas is described below:

Table 1. Early references to jianzi rice distribution in Jiangxi and Zhejiang.

        The above suggests Tai Lake was the first place to grow jianzi rice, with Suzhou the center for spread. After >100 years until the early 13^th century, records show the growth of such rice around Suzhou, like Huzhou, Changshou and Jiaxing 7-800 years later, with jianzi rice common at Tai Lake. Through common name confusion, jianzi has been mistaken for other kinds of rice (e.g., a document found near Jiaxing mistakenly treats jianzi as honglian rice, also famous), but it is easy to recognize jianzi rice, on:

(1) grain length, with jianzi a typical slim indica.

(2) white or "snow white".

(3) soft after cooking, for excellent quality.

(4) late-maturation of 120-140 days.

        Jianzi is commonly called "long rice" on these features, which can be used to show its spread.

        A 1748 record in Jiang Ning Xian Xin Zhi shows this rice in Nanjiang is "a Guan Yin indica, white with long stem and best in the south." It remained into the Republic, as Book 2 of Xin Jiang Bei Cheng in 1932 said "southern rice has the best quality with Guan Yin Men rice long, white and best to cook congee." In Dan Tu near Nanjiang, a document mentions "geng or nonglutinous rice harvested in September is called hsien (indica), a late-maturing large rice with long, pointed greenish-white grain". Dan Tu Xian Zhi, Book 17, Qing Dynasty, 1879, calls it "long grain indica", which mixes with "long grain geng", but is not distinguished from geng. Obviously, the author does not understand, but at least it proves a "narrow, long, sticky soft grain" in Dan Tu. When cooked, it grows in a 1" circle. As Dan Yang Xian Zhi, Book 29, Qing Dynasty, 1885 also calls it "long rice", we are assured it grew in Nanjiang and environs.

        Other areas where jianzi is common is Guangshan of Henan, Gushi on the common border of Hubei, Anhui and Henan, and Macheng, Huanggang of Hubei. Guang Zhou Zhi (1770) mentions jianzi traits as "long, narrow grains, September-maturing and above average quality". Gu Shi Xian Zhi (1786) also mentions Gushi has jianzi white, but its description is too like Dao Pin written by the Ming Dynasty’s Sheng Zeng Huang. As descriptions of other species are also too like ones in Dao Pin, people doubt this source. Also in 1786, Guang Shan Xian Zhi, Book 43, describes a yintiaozhan (silver stick) rice grain as "white, long, narrow, fragrant and suitable in a fertile field". It is also noted in Shu Cheng of Anhui Province as a "medium-late maturing rice with dense leaves, thick stem and tips as thin as silver. This loose fragrant rice rarely occurs elsewhere" (Shu Chen Xian Zhi, Qing Dynasty, Emperor Yong Zheng, 9^th year, 1731, Book 10). Comparing traits, yintiaozhan (or yintiaoshan) and jianzi rice are almost identical, and it frequently grows in E Anhui, and SW Henan. In neighboring areas like Huang Gang, Macheng of Hubei province, there also existed a famous excellent quality changyaogeng, "its fragrant late-maturing rice making delicious dishes in town, but its non-productivity make fields appear sterile" (Huang Gang Xian Zhi, 1759, Book1). Until the 1920’s, "xiamashan and changyaogeng in Huangzhou...are both delicious with good qualities" (Hubei Tong Zhi, 1921, Book 22). As xiamashan is also a "September late-maturing...white long, soft, fragrant rice"(Ma Cheng Xian Zhi Xu Bian, Book 1), we are convinced chengyaogeng, xiamashan and yintiaoshan have a common source.

        In addition, there is rice in the countrywide resembling jianzi in name and trait; e.g., Jianyang in Fujian province has a rice qinggengzi (Jian Yang Xian Zhi), Emperor Dao Guang, 12^th year, Book 4), which is also "long, narrow, delicious grain" (Jianyang Xian Zhi), the Republic, 11^th year, Book 4). In the 7th-9th centuries, the Hanzhong area of Shanxi once had widespread gaicaohuang, its traits also "white, delicious, long grain" (Lue Yang Xian Zhi, 1731, Book 1). Therefore, it seems to be a jianzi rice.

        Xiang Jun Zhi mentions "long rice grain" grew earlier in Guangxi and spread widely in Song Dynasty, but was seldom noted. In Ming Dynasty (Emperor Jia Jing, 43^rd year), "long nian rice grain" appeared in Nan Ning Fu Zhi written in Qing Dynasty (Emperor Qian Long, 10^th year). Guangxi local documents in Qing Dynasty mentioning this kind of rice also include Shang Si Zhou Zhi (1834) and Xin Ning Zhou Zhi (1878). As the Republic’s Yong Ning Xian Zhi also lists "long nian rice grain" as excellent quality, it seems only Nan Ning kept this traditional good quality from Ming Dynasty. It no longer occurs in the first Xiangzhou origin. But Xiangzhou seems to keep its tradition as the place where quality rice grows. In Qing Dynasty, the best hongbai was from Xiangzhou, and the best nian rice also from Xiangzhou (Guangxi Tong Zhi, Qing Dynasty, Emperor Jia Ying, 5^th year, Book 90). Therefore, it remains doubtful the quality of "long grain rice" has changed, or has improved in Xiangzhou.

        According to the above document, the record may be mistaken or repeated, and the same kind of rice from different areas may not have the same source, and we can still observe long grain excellent quality jianzi growing throughout China, but questions remain worth discussing regarding this kind of rice:

        (1) Origin. According to present data, the earliest descriptions of "jian zi" rice is Wu Jun Tu Jing Shu Ji (1084) and Yu Di Ji Sheng (1227), written more than a century later. As the latter description was quoted from the earlier Xiang Jun Zhi, which we can infer about the time of Wu Jun Tu Jing Shu Ji, it is difficult to judge if Xiangzhou or Suzhou was the first to grow jianzi rice. Synthesis shows Xiangzhou is the likely origin of jianzi and long grain rice: (1) although rice was jointly found at both Xiangzhou and Suzhou, we believe Suzhou is the economic and cultural center and would have drawn more attention if it were the earliest. In contrast, Xiangzhou in Guangxi was a penal colony, with the possibility its publication would have been delayed. In addition, when Xiang Jun Zhi recorded "long rice", it had spread to many places in Guangxi, telling us it had been grown for quite some time in Xiangzhou; and (2) in terms of names, we see two names jianzi and "long rice" near Tai Lake, with only "long rice" in Guangxi. It seems "long rice" acquired another name after it spread to Tai Lake from either Xiangzhou or Guangxi. According to the latter document, "long rice" spread was manmade, possibly by officers sent from central areas to Guangxi. While not totally despondent, those who went to this bitter place might have brought rice, but a more reasonable assumption is that after they spent some time in Guangxi, they carried it back to central areas, first to Tai Lake.

        Jianzi rice requires fertile soil; e.g.s, Hai Qu Shi Yi reads "jianzixian, good for river soil"; Xiang Jun Zhi also mentions it grew well in Xiangzhou because it was fertile, and Guang Shan Xian Zhi also states this kind of rice "is suitable for fertile land". Historically, the most common area where jianzi rice grew was the fertile Yangtze delta. Jianzi rice was unproductive in infertile land and further exhausted it.

        Such fertility need is an important reason why jianzi is uncommon. It persists but is nearly extinct in Guangxi, its earliest area. The Yangtze valley had it for a millennium, but it is now rare and replaced by other rice. Neither the Jiangsu Province Record of the Republic 24^th year (1935) nor its Agricultural Products mention jianzi in Su-Hu where it used to be common. In the past few decades, it became either extinct or underwent name change. It is not difficult to analyze the cause. Generally, it was grown as a commodity; i.e., not for growers, but as a luxury for royalty or wealthy people; e.g., the North Song Dynasty emperor. Jianzi was sold in the market in Lin-An (Meng Liang Lu), the South Song capital. As it exhausted the land and was unproductive, it was only grown where other rice was excessive. From Song to Ming Dynasties, Tai Lake was a rice commodity center: "as long as Su-Chang area is productive, there was enough food for the rest of the country". Therefore, jianzi was commonly grown. Until recent years, population growth made highly productive species more popular to farmers. At the end of Ming Dynasty, Ying Xing Song strongly opposed this "scented rice", thinking it "only attracted the rich with its scent, and was unproductive, with no benefit at all to grow it" (Tian Gong Kai Wu, Book 1). As the introduction of more economic products like cotton and peanuts along the Yangtze River had a huge impact, it is highly possible it became extinct through inattention, poor breeding or simple abandonment. Thus, it is not too hard to comprehend its early disappearance in its place of origin - Jiangxi.

        3. Aizizhan and minaturization of Chinese rice products

        The worldwide 1960’s "green revolution" raised food production by miniaturizing rice, with many poor countries suddenly becoming food exporters, even China in the 1950’s in Guangxi. Its aizizhan was the first short-stalked ancestor, with >half of all short-stalked varieties bred from it. It contributed a lot to rice miniaturization here and over the world, and it is especially meaningful when tracking its source.

(1) The process of aizizhan being introduced to Guangxi

        In July, 1941, when overseas Chinese Li Nan Gan of Rong county returned from Malaysia, he hid rice seeds in the front of his traditional clothes. After putting them in a small wine glass and transplanting them the following spring, he called them aizizhan because they were exceptionally short at harvest. After two years, he gave seed to his relatives and friends, and it has since spread; e.g., 1-2,000 mu in Rong county until 1949.

        While aizizhan did not stand out earlier, only spreading 1-2,000 mu in 8 years, the Guangxi Agriculture Experimental Farm simultaneously grew dongguanbai in Rong county, exceeding in one year aizizhan’s spread in 8 years and making its first appearance not particularly popular. But aizizhan was not the first short-stalked variety, as we found many rice varieties containing the word "ai"in Qing Dynasty local records. While the name aizizhan actually existed, other names included aijiaozhan, ainian, aizihong and aizizao, doubtless from their short-stalk; e.g.s, Xin Hua Xian Zhi of Emperor Qian Long 24^th year, Qing Dynasty (1759) mentions aizizhan in local south Hunan and NW Guangxi documents; and Gui Xian Zhi (1934) documents aizizhan (also called tiantengai) in SE Guangxi. That the aizizhan Li Nan Gan brought from Malaysia to Rong county borrowed the already existing name aizinian also explains that short-stalked varieties had already spread commonly since earlier times, especially in South China.

(2) Early spread of aizizhan

        Effective aizizhan miniaturization followed 1949 liberation, when government emphasised and invested in agriculture with two important techniques: land fertilization and growing reasonable plant density, with dramatic effect in mean mu production. A rising problem was premature grain shatter of highly productive plants because they were mostly high-stalked. On one hand, these species prematurely shatter due to over-density or over-fertilization. On the other hand, a major storm is enough to destroy numerous rice fields, especially on the coast. Thus, from the 1950’s to the early 1960’s, the important task in stabilizing paddy rice production was controlling early shatter. Under such circumstances, people started to be aware of aizizhan’s superiority.

        In selecting Guangxi 1951-2 agricultural products, aizizhan was ignored, but Rong county chose aizizhan for cultivation in 1953 when growth was encouraged and agricultural production competed. Zhao Cai Lin of Miaoyang village (Yangmei Town) joined the competition with one mu of aizizhan, but his rice had not flowered when other paddy rice had at the end of May (lunar calendar). When aizizhan began flowering after 10 days, its ears still green, a storm destroyed the high-stalked paddy rice in other fields. His harvest yielded 444 kg/mu, 200 kg more than highly productive huazhonggu, raising much attention after disclosure in the Guangxi daily newspaper, with many requests for aizizhan. In 1955, Teng Fang Zhao, a Rongxian agricultural department officer, grew 4.2 mu of aizizhan in the Li village experimental farm, with a record-breaking yield of 501.1 kg/mu, as disclosed in Guangxi’s Harvest Express. This caused such widespread attention that aizizhan became Guangxi’s dominant crop in 1956-65. From its first cultivation in 1958, it grew dramatically from 250,000 to 2,000,000 mu in 1959. Adjacent Guangdong began experimental growing in Lianjiang, Huaxian, Xinhui and Shantou in 1955, yielding 20,000 mu in 1958, rising to 1,000,000 mu in 1959. Countrywide news of great harvests preceded consensus of its short-stalk merits with higher sprouting from its stump, shorter growing time, more and bigger grain and wind resistance. Until 1964, its cultivation and success was due to "no other early-maturing rice yielding more in Guangxi" [18].

        But it was not always successful as: (1) it was labor intensive, its high density and short stalk making it difficult to hold for reaping - "it killed both the planting wife and the reaping husband", with some places refusing to grow it. It also made less straw for cattle feed and winter fuel; and (2) it really is late-maturing, with a growing period ca. 140 days, 10-20 days above average. Farmers tried to solve the problem by advancing rice seedlings in some areas, but it took too much labor and time. Cultivation was especially affected in large areas with few people. Finally, its large leaves did not resist rice blast or white leaf blight, and easily spread leaf blotch, so it was only grown commonly in Guangxi.

(3) Early-maturing breeding based on aizizhan

        Despite its many drawbacks its miniaturization benefits directed China’s paddy rice breeding, with widespread agriculturalists screening seeds to produce new species; e.g., Bo Bai Liang seed farm selected >30 species, overcoming some defects; Bo Ai #6 became widespread, while #4 was an excellent aizizhan cross-breeding source.

        The real breakthrough for short-stalk breeding was in March, 1956, when the Guangdong Agricultural Science Department requested aizizhan seeds. Kui Xie, Rongxian’s vice mayor and chief of agriculture sent 5 kg. Department staff chose #4, cross-breeding it with local excellent early-maturing indica guangchang #13, jiangnan #1224 seeds. Their results initiated selection for short stalks, their best results a combined aizizhan #4 and guangchang #13, and finishing experiments in 1959 with a short-stalked, multi-sprouted, big grained, faster-growing and earlier maturing (10 days faster) rice. Its stable genetics allowed the name guangchangai, and it was first grown throughout Guangdong. Due to its performance it quickly spread to Guangxi and adjacent provinces, reaching 10,000,000 mu. In addition, guangchangai served as base for breeding of mass-produced quality rice.

        Encouraged by guangchangai’s success, the Department selected another generation of short-stalk early-maturing indica by crossbreeding aizizhan #4 and huiyangzhenzhuzao. Its wind-resistance, mass-production and environment adaptation resulted in growing >50,000,000 mu, rising to 170,000,000 mu in 1987. It was the dominant early-maturing rice from the mid-1960’s to the mid-1970’s.

        Aizizhan and short-stalked nante in the 1950’s brought huge economic gains, not only in consecutive breeding and success of aizizhan and zhenzhuai, but also in the direction and practice of paddy rice breeding theory. Widespread people gained from this short-stalk source and cross-bred with local excellent species, resulting in many short-stalked, highly productive species adapted to local climate. It improved short-stalk quality in South China in the 1960’s and skyrocketted paddy rice production.

        Compared to IRRI’s great short-stalked IR8 based on Taiwan’s dijiaowujian, guangchangai came 10 years earlier [18]. But it was IR8 and related species which caused the green revolution that enormously influenced the world.

(4) aizizhan varieties in the 1960’s and 1970’s

        When Chinese rice miniaturization ended in the late 1960’s-early 1970’s, short-stalk breeding became bidirectional to: (1) ensure its maturation; and (2) combat disease. Simultaneously, a series of short-stalked, highly productive, disease-resistant indica types were bred; >half were aizizhan varieties.

1. aizizhan varieties belonging to early-maturing indica

        In forty years, China bred 298 early-season indica short stalk aizizhan species from the 1950’s (until 1991). Among these species, there are 9 generations & 156 species belonging to aizizhan varieties, or 54.03% of all early-season indica short stalk aizizhan. It contributed greatly to china paddy rice history, its most famous species the following:

        Xiangaizao #3 was cross-bred by guangchangai #6 and liantangzao by the Hunan Institute of Agricultural Science in 1965. It was the main early-medium-maturing species in Hunan from the late 1960’s to early 1970’s, with 4,305,400 mu cultivated in 1972.

        In 1973, xianfeng #1 was crossbred from guangchangai #6 and lucaihao in 3,290,000 mu in Zhejiang by its Agriculture University in 1969, and simultaneously in Anhui, Hunan and Hubei. It was acclaimed by its producers.

        In 1969, erjiuqing (4^th generation aizizhan variety) was crossbred from erjiuai #7 and qingxiaojinzao by Zhejiang Institute of Agricultural Science. It easily adjusts to the environment and resists blast, and became the dominant early-maturing indica species in southern rice fields in the 1970’s. The cultivated area was >1,000,000 mu in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Hunan and Hubei, while the national cultivated area was >10,000,000 mu.

        In 1968, Zhejiang’s Jiaxing Institute of Agricultural Science of crossbred erjiunan #1 from erjiuai #7 and ainanzao #1. This 5^th generation aizizhan is the same as erjiuqing. 1,480,000 mu were grown in Zhejiang in 1971, and 1,392,000 mu in Hunan in 1973. Its historical significance is its crossbred erjiunan #1A, the best adapted of the mid-1970’s. Its Nanyou system variety occupied the largest area in the 1970’s.

        In 1967, the Guangdong Institute of Agicultural Science crossbred Guangyang #4 from guangchangai 3784 and yangcaihao, resulting in higher disease resistance and replacing aijiaonante. 18-20,000,000 mu were planted in the late 1970’s-early 1980’s.

        In 1976, the Guangdong Institute of Agricultural Science crossbred guizhao #2, an 8^th generation aizizhan, from guiyangai 49 and zhaoyangzao 18, resulting in 4065 mu nationwide in 1982. This species is productive but less disease resistant.

        In 1980, the Guangdong Institute of Agricultural Science crossbred Shuanggui #1 from guiyangai C17 and guizhao #2, overcoming guizhao #2’s lower disease resistance, and resulting in 17,000,000 mu by 1984.

        In 1968, Zhejiang’s Institute of Wenzhou crossbred zhenshan 97 from zhenzhuai 11 and shanaixuan #4. Like erjiunan #1, its significance was that zhenshan 97-A, II-32A, D zhenshan 97-A, etc., were cross-bred from it. Zhenshan 97-A’s strong disease resistance lead to the largest area since the 1980’s, becoming the famous shanyou system.

        In 1965, the Zhejiang Institute of Agricultural Science crossbred guiyangai from guifeng 70 and yangcaihai by combining short-stemmed aizizhan and aijiaonante. In the 1970’s, ca. 12,000,000 mu was planted along the middle and lower Yangtze River.

        In addition, other aizizhan varieties include excellent qualities of tuanhuangzhan, teqing, etc.

2. mid-season indica short stalk variety

        As southern rice was transplanted north, its growing period extended, with early to mid-season, late-maturing indica in Guangxi and Guangdong greatly influencing mid-season indica miniaturization. Added to the famous aizizhan, guangchangai, zhenzhuai and later guangxuan #3, Guizhao #1, shuanggui #1 etc., used for mid-season indica production, 55 mid-season indica varieties were produced based on guangchangai and zhenzhuai, with 68 varieties total, or 38.9% of all excellent nationwide mid-season indica. It was the branch with most varieties. From the 1950’s to 1980’s, through miniaturization and cultivation of aizizhan and its varieties, the production of mid-season indica increased from 400 kg/mu to 500 kg/mu in 50’s.

Time and yield of good varieties of short-stalk indica

        Of the above 14 representative varieties, zhenzhuai, chengduai #8, guangchang #3, guizhao #2, lucheng 17, aituogu 151, shuanggui #1, shanyou 63, and teqing, these 9 species are aizizhan varieties. Among them, chengduai #8 was the dominant mid-season indica in the late 1960’s in Sichuan. Lucheng 17 and aituogu 151 were the main species grown before the mid-1970’s in Sichuan. The cultivated area of chengduai #8 and lucheng 17 was >10,000,000 mu and significantly contributed to rice production in "the land of abundance" (Sichuan).

3. varieties of aizizhan of late-season indica

        Late-maturing indica miniaturization also rose in the early 1960’s. Based on its success on early-season rice, the Guangdong Institute of Agricultural Science successfully transferred genes from short-stalked early-maturing to late-maturing rice, the first short-stalked late-maturing varieties bred in 1963, including guangerai, guangqiuai, yazaiai and aiqimei, the exported excellent quality rice. The above are all guangchangai varieties. Guangerai can be produced in early, mid- and late seasons. For late seasons, they were mostly grown in Guangdong, Fujian, Yunnan and Guizhou in ca. 10,000,000 mu. Growth of these early to late-maturing indica varieties obviously increased production, but they also were less resistant to disease and low temperature. Therefore, after the mid 1960’s, indica miniaturization brought in short sources more disease resistant and easier to expose to light, like aizhongshuitiangu, hualongshuitiangu, etc. Aizizhan and the above short sources contributed greatly to late-season indica miniaturization. Of the 215 late-season indica varieties, 73 (1/3) are aizizhan varieties. Cultivation of the famous ones, like guangqiuai, guizhao #2 (good for early, mid- and late seasons), shuanggui #1 (good for early and late seasons) and guangerai, tuanjie #1, grew to >10,000,000 mu. That the Guangxi Institute of Agricultural Science cross-bred temei is worth noting, as it was based on aiqimei #5. Its excellent quality was evaluated as first class exported rice. It doubtless provided precious experience and lessons for the breeding of productive and excellent quality paddy rice in China.

(5) function of the varieties of aizizhan in cross-breeding

        In 1973, indica paddy rice cross-breeding formed three complete sets nationally. From then, the revolution of Chinese paddy rice cross-breeding started. As cultivation and application of paddy rice cross-breeding started in 1976, it grew rapidly throughout the country on one hand, while on the other, each research center came up with better combinations. They greatly contributed to increased foodstuffs, with aizizhan varieties pivotal in cross-breeding innovation.

1. varieties of aizizhan in the sterile system

        Six indica cross-bred cytoplasm sterile systems developed by China are wild, short, hard, D-type, red lotus and aqueous. Wild was discovered and exploited earliest, and is now the most applied. Of 9 major wild cytoplasm systems, 8 are aizizhan-related, of which erjiunan #1A was most applied in the 1970’s. Its paternal erjiunan #1 is a 5^th generation aizizhan variety, while in the 1980’s to 1990’s, the most applied was zhenshan 97A. Its paternal zhenshan 97 was a 3^rd generation cross-bred by 2^nd generation zhenzhuai 11 of aizizhan and shanaixuan #4. As it better resists blast, it became the most popular combination in the shanyou system. In other systems, hard cytoplasm gangzhouyang #1 and gangerjiuai #7 have short sources from aizizhan and aijiaonante. The short source of D-type cytoplasm D zhenshan 97A and D297A is from aizizhan, which belongs to II-32A aqueous cytoplasm, which has short sources from both aizizhan and IR8. Of systems now applied, most paternal short sources are from aizizhan.

        2. varieties of aizizhan in the fertile system

        Modern representative fertile systems in production and application are from two major short source varieties, aizizhan and aijiaonante. Of the 10 most applied, erjiunan #1B, zhenshan 97B, V418B, short-type xieqingzhao B, erjiuai #4 B and aqueous II-32B are all the varieties of aizizhan, while V20B, zhaoyang #1 B, guangchangyin B and jiennante 43B have short sources from both aizizhan and aijiaonante.

        3. main varieties of aizizhan in indica type cross-bred combination

        In the 1970’s and 1980’s, China produced different indica types by cross-breeding indica type recovery and sterile systems. After screening their combinations, a group of excellent cross-bred combinations were produced, now grown extensively. Of present cultivated varieties, shanyou is a combination of zhenshan 97A, weiyou a combination of V20A, nanyou a combination of erjiunan #1A and aiyou a combination of erjiuai #4A. Besides weiyou, shanyou, nanyou, aiyou are all from aizizhan, of which nanyou was the major combination in the 1970’s, its #2, #3 and #6 cultivation >1,000,000 mu. In the 1980’s, blast and bacterial leaf blight resistant shanyou and weiyou gradually dominated. Shanyou was mainly grown in 2-season paddies in South China, weiyou mainly in 1-2 season paddies along the middle and lower Yangtze. Shanyou varieties with growth areas >1,000,000 mu are #2, #3, #6, #63, shanyougui 33, shanyou 30 xuan, etc., esp. shanyou 30 xuan and shanyougui, which remain the main varieties in South China because they resist delphacid, bacterial leaf blight rice blast.

Conclusions

        From a seed improvement perspective, three major steps in Chinese paddy rice development are: (1) cultivated rice appearance; (2 cultivated varieties like zhancheng in 11^th century Song Dynasty, an indica species now widespread; (3) importing of modern agricultural technology and systematic selection (esp. cross-breeding), leading to full paddy rice replacement.

        In these steps, doubtless Guangxi played an important role in rice origin. South Song Dynasty has a record of 2-season zhancheng in Guangxi [21]. As its growth pattern differs greatly from Yangtze and Huai Basin rice, we do not rule out the possibility it may have been brought inland from Guangxi. In a Guangxi folktale, the top imperial exam candidate, Shize Wong from Yongfu in Guangxi, returned it to China. Thus, Guangxi appears very important in zhancheng cultivation. Besides miniaturization in modern breeding, it is well-known that the first recovery system was found in Guangxi, causing three paddy rice cross-bred combinations. In later cross-breeding, Guangxi agriculturists accomplished many technical results by exploiting local seed resources.

        While rich seed resources and special geography make Guangxi inseparable from Chinese rice development, it was not the main beneficiary of these new technologies. It rather served as a center for resources and spread; i.e., new technical application and its potential depended on its social environment, as discovery and application totally differ. Cultural center growth also relies on support from other sub-cultures; i.e., agricultural technology, a foundation of Chinese civilization, comes from contributions of minor ethnic groups, like those in Guangxi. As progress in full cultural understanding remains an important task for historians, Guangxi’s special contribution doubtless provides some inspiration in Chinese rice development.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Ying Ding, editor: China paddy rice cultivation study. Origin and Evolution of Chinese Cultivated Rice 1961:3-20.

[2] Miao Shen Wu, editor: General survey and inspection group of Guangxi wild rice: Geographic distribution and features of Guangxi wild rice. Selection of Research Papers on Wild Rice Resources 1990:26-27.

[3] Miao Shen Wu: Discussion of rice origins from Guangxi wild rice. Selection of Research Papers on Wild Rice Resources 1990:181-183.

[4] Dao Yuan Li & Cheng Bin Chen: Inspection of two major ecotypes of common wild rice. Selection of Research Papers on Wild Rice Resources 1990:29-33 (ed. by Guangxi Agriculture Science Edit. Dept.).

[5] Dao Yuan Li & Cheng Bin Chen: Discussion of Features of Two Major Ecotypes of Chinese Common Wild Rice 1990:71-2. (ed. by Guangxi Agriculture Science Edit. Dept.).

[6] Ten big new national archaeological discoveries. Guangming Daily 1996, March 26.

[7] [10] En Zheng Tong: Discussion of agricultural origin and archaeological research technique in SE Asia and South China. Agriculture Archaeology 1984(12):21-30.

[8] Ruo Kui Zheng, editor: Site of the earliest rice agricultural remains in India. Agriculture Archaeology 1987(12).

[9] Ru Jie You: Discussion of orgin of Asian cultivated rice and spread via language, geography and historical linguistics. Central Nationalities Institute Journal 1983.

[11] Hong Guei Fan: Nations from the same root (in press).

[12] Fu Qiang Li: Origin of the first agriculture in South China. Agriculture Archaeology 1990(12).

[13] Xiu Ling You: History of Chinese rice. Agriculture Publication122 1995.

[14] Rong Xian Zhi editorial committee. Guangxi People’s Publication 1992:236-237.

[15] Main short stalk sources are all from South China, except aizizhan & aijiaonante from Guangdong and dijiaowujian from Taiwan.

[16] IRRI began crossbreeding miniature paddy rice in 1962, getting basic seed in 1963, with official cultivation in December, 1966, after testing. See Innovation of Applied Science - International Rice Research Institute History (Robert F. Chandler, Jr/translated by Ren Yi Jin et al.). Chinese Agriculture Technology Publication 1988.

[17] District of agricultural seeds: Several important steps in early-maturing rice cultivation. Guangxi Daily 1964/4/3.

[18] There are 34 varieties of aijiaonante (19.4%) & 38 of dijiaowujian (21.7%).

[19] see Chinese Paddy rice Varieties and their Genealogy (ed. by Shi Cheng Lin et al.). Shanghai Technology Publication 1991.

[20] Yong Le Da Dian, Book 8507, quoted from Jian Wu Zhi, South Song Dynasty: "Zhancheng rice has bi-annual harvests and grows in many places". Also see poem San Shan Ting by Bi Tao in South Song Dynasty: " People are content with abundant zhancheng rice"

[21] His Styles resemble the Phoenix, and his Qualities resemble Mountains - the Story of Shi Ze Wong, the Top Successful Candidate in South Song Dynasty’s Imperial Exam, by Xi Xian Zeng. IN The Country of Luck and Prosperity, Li Jiang Publication. His experience suggests he also spread zhangcheng rice, as he was the ambassador to Cochin in Chun Hua in the 1^st and 4^th years (990 & 994 A.D.).